LIBRARY 

OF   THK 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 

Received. 

Accessions  No&&i3./&*      Shelf  No. 


ES 


MILITARY 

FOR  OFFICERS  OF  THE 


0  .Sbnllntms  of  Urcturrs 
U.  S.  INFANTMY  AM)    r.\  VALUY  SCHOOL. 


ALFRED  A.  WOODHULL, 

MAJOR  MEDICAL  DEPT.,  Bvr.  LT.-COL.  U.  S.  ARMY. 


NEW  YORK: 

JOHN    WILEY    &    SONS, 

53  EAST  TENTH  STREET. 

1890. 


u/- 


Copyright,  1890, 

BY 

ALFRED  A  WOODHULL. 


ROBERT  DRUMMOND,  FERRIS  BROS., 

Electrotyper,  Printers, 

New  York.  New  York. 


THESE  notes  represent  the  essence  of  the  lee  tun  -s 
on  Military  Hygiene  delivered  to  the  Class  of  1889, 
;it  the  Infantry  and  ( 'avalry  School.  The  lectures  were 
expansions  of  this  syllabus,  and  were  chiefly  compila- 
tions with  additions,  comments,  and  illustrations 
from  personal  experience.  Parkes's  great  work  is  :he 
chief  but  not  the  only  source  whence  the  prim -iples 
were  drawn. 

Originally  prepared  for  the  convenience  of  student 
officers,  it  has  been  thought  that  this  abstract  mi.Lfht 
be  acceptable  to  officers  of  the  line  generally. 

FORT  LEAVENWORTH,  May,  1890. 


CONTENTS. 


I.  SKLKCTION  OP  SOLDIERS, 
II.   MILITARY  CLOTHING, 

III.  FOOD,  . 

IV.  HABITATIONS, 

V.  CAMTS  AND  MARCHES, 

VI.  SKWKKS  AND  WASTK,      . 
VII.   WATI.I;, 

VI  11.    PREVENTAI5U-;    DisKASEB, 

BOOKS  OF  REFERENCE,    . 
INDEX, 


PAGES 

1-20 
21-36 
37-71 


106-117 
118-136 
137-142 

143 
145-150 


NOTES  ON  MILITARY  HYGIENE. 


THE  SELECTION  OF  SOLDIERS. 

Nature  of  Military  ///// 

1.  In  general  terms  military  hygiene   means  the 
care  of  troops.     This  duty  is  ever  present. 

2.  It  concerns  line  officers  as  they  control  the  daily 
lives  of  men,  and  staff  officers  as  they  supply  their 
food,  their  clothing,  and  their  habitations. 

3.  It  is  of  importance  to  soldiers  because,  removed 
from  much  independent  action  in  relation  to  their 
own  sanitary  care,  honesty  requires  they  shall  not  be 
injured  by  the  system  imposed  on  them,  and  to  the 
state  because  nothing  is  so  costly  as  disease  and  noth- 
ing  so   remunerative   as   the   outlay   that   augments 
health  and  thus  increases  the  amount  and  value  of 
the  work  done.     (Parkes.) 

General  Physique. 

4.  The  whole  military  fabric  rests  upon  the  physi8-: 
cal  character  of  the  individuals  composing  it. 

5.  The  recruits  must  be  trustworthy  in  physique 
before  the  military  character  can  be  developed,  and 
extreme  care  is  necessary  to  avoid  accepting  blemished 
men  who  will  break  down  under  strain. 

1 


2  NOTES   ON   MILITARY 

6.  Recruiting  is,  therefore,  a  serious   duty  to  be 
both  conscientiously  and  intelligently  performed. 

7.  It  is  not  true,  as  sometimes  assumed,  that  every 
full-grown  man  who  supports  himself  by  hard  manual 
labor  will  make  an  efficient  soldier. 

8.  Because  all  his  senses  may  not  be  keen,  nor  all 
his  joints  flexible ;  and  although  accustomed  to  vigor- 
ous work  he  may  not  be  sound. 

9.  Unsound   men,  enlisted   on  account  of   special 
skill  as  craftsmen,  can  never  be  depended  on  for  the 
field  and  will  certainly  be  absent  in  battle. 

10.  When  in  doubt  as  to  a  recruit,  reject. 

11.  Some   allowance  may  be    made   for  blemishes 
not  affecting  organic  soundness  that  have  originated 
in  the  service,  in  men  who  technically  re-enlist. 

12.  Because    their   education   in    military  matters 
and  their  habits  of  discipline  compensate  for  some 
minor  weaknesses. 

13.  But  all  variations  from  the  standard  must  be 
carefully  noted  on  the  enlistment  papers. 

14.  Men  failing  to  re-enlist  who  seek  to  come  in 
later  with  blemishes  are  rarely  acceptable. 

15.  "An -army  raised  without  due   regard  to  the 
choice  of  recuits  was  never  yet  made  a  good  army  by 
any  length  of  service."     (Vegetius,  A.D.  300.) 

Age  of  Recruits. 

16.  Maximum  for  cavalry,  30  years;    for  all  other 
arms,  35  years;    minimum  for  musicians,   16  years; 
for  all  others,  18  years.     No  limit  for  subsequent  en- 
listment. 

17.  During  the  Civil  War  volunteers  were  accepted 
between  18  and  45,  but  men  were  drafted  only  between 
20  and  45. 


OF   SOLD!  ;  3 

18.  The  so-called  "eiirolled  militia"   are   between 

18  and  45. 

I 

Height  and  \\'>  //////. 

1!>.   Present    minimum    height,    5   feet    4   inches.  < 
Maximum  height  for  cavalry,  5  feet   10  inches;   for 
all   others  as  determined  by  relation  to  maximum 
weight. 

20.  Cavalry,  no  minimum  weight;   maximum,  n;:> 
pounds.    For  all  others,  minimum  weight,  128  pounds, 
maximum,  190  pounds. 

21.  An  exceptionally  good  recruit  may  be  accepted 
at  125  pounds,  if  filling  all  other  runditiu: 

22.  Physiological    relation    between     h right    and 
weight,  used  as  the  standard  for  recruits,  is:   To  in- 
clude 5  feet  7  inches,  2  pounds  to  the  iin-h  and  add  7 
pounds  for  every  inch  above  5  feet  I  ineli< •>. 

23.  Application  of  rule  for  weight:   Multiply  the 
whole  height  in  inches  by  2;  multiply  the  dillY-renr;' 
between  5  feet  7  inches  and  a  greater  height  by  5; 
add  the  products. 

Example:  To  find  the  normal  weight  of  a  man  5 
feet  10  inches.  5  feet  10  inches  =  70  inches;  70  X  2 
=  140;  5  feet  7  inches  =  G7  inches ;  70  -  G7  =  3  ; 
3x5  =  15;  140  +  15  =  155  =  weight. 

24.  The  maximum  height  for  cavalry  is  fixed,  and 
for  other  troops  is  determined  by  applying  this  rule 
to  the  maximum  weight  (190  pounds). 

Example :  5  feet  7  inches  =  67  inches  ;  67x2  = 
134  ;  190  -  134  =  56  ;  56  -f-  7  =  8  ;  67  +  8  =  75  =  6 
feet  3  inches  for  infantry  or  artillery. 

25.  It  is  permissible  to  accept  recruits  a  few  pounds 
either  under  or  over  the  relative  weight,   but  those 
under  weight  are  to  be  regarded  with  disfavor  unless 


4  NOTES    ON    MILITARY    HYGIENE. 

reduced  by  some  manifestly  temporary  condition. 
Exceptions  as  to  over-height  are  made  by  Adjutant- 
General. 

26.  It    is  better  that   men   should   be   over    than 
under  weight  if  muscular,  but  obese  men  should  be 
rejected. 

27.  The  present  minimum  height,  5  feet  4  inches, 
is  merely  a  regulation  that  may  be  changed  at  any 
time;  but  experience  has  shown  that  5  feet  2  inches 
is  practically  the  lowest  limit  for  efficiency,  and  when 
men  less  than  5  feet  have  been  accepted  they  have 
been  found  to  speedily  break  down  as  a  class  from  want 
of  physical  strength. 

Chest  Capacity. 

28.  Chest  capacity  consists    of    the    two  factors, 
chest  measurement  and  chest  mobility,  and  is  one  of 
the  elements  for  determining  vigor. 

29.  Chest  measurement  is  the  mean  of  the  meas- 
ures of  chest  circumference,  taken  a  little  below  the 
nipple  with  the  arms  hanging  naturally,  at  the  end  of 
forced  expiration  and  forced  inspiration. 

30.  Chest  mobility  is  the  difference  between  the 
extremes  of  expiration  and  inspiration. 

31.  Speaking  generally,  the  more  nearly  the  chest 
approaches  a  barrel  in  shape  the  better. 

32.  The   circumference    at  the  nipple    should  be 
about  one-half  the  height  of  the  man. 

33.  The  capacity  of  the  lungs  increases  with  age  to 
a  certain  period  and  with  height  and  growth,  so  that 
men  from  5  to  6  feet  high  inspire  from  174  to  262 
inches. 

34.  The  physiological  rule  to  determine  the  rela- 
tion of  chest  capacity  to  height  in  recruits  is:   Be- 


SELECTION 


s<>U>Ii:us. 


tween  5  ft.  4  in.  and  5  ft.  7  in.  there  should  be  a 
mean  chest  measurement  of  »U  in.  and  there  must 
be  a  chest  mobility  of  2  in.,  with  a  minimum  at  ex- 
piration  of  32  ///. 

35.  Above  5  ft.  7  in.  the  mobility  must  be  24  in., 
and  for  every  inch  of  stature  add  one-halt'  inch  to 
chest  measurement. 


36.  TABLE  SHOWING  THE   RI:I.\II«>\   BETWEEN  HEIGHT, 
WEIGHT  AND  CHEST  CAPACITY.— ( 


Height 

weight 

For  each  inch  of 
h'-ik'ht,  allow 

Chest  measure- 

Ili.Mlt. 

Chest 

mobility. 

5  ft.  4  in.  to  ) 

r.  ft-    f  ;,, 

2  Ibs  

I  Half  hj'fcht  plus  I 

•      »,.,  i. 

•J  iucl  | 

5  ft.   8  in    t<»l 

v?  11><  .  nn<l  .%  UK.  :\>\ 

f  Hall'  li.M^ht 

2K>  inches. 

5ft.  10  in.      i 
S  ft.  llin.  au.l  f 
above. 

ilitiunal  f" 
inch  above  5  ft. 
7  in          

i  Sli-htIvU-s<  than  i 
\     half  i'li«-  li.-i^ht    \ 

•-"  ..  inches. 

37.  A  minor  above  the  age  of  18  may  be  enlisted 
with  his  parents'  consent,   provided  he  is  in  all  re- 
spects the  equal  of  a  man  of  21. 

38.  This  proviso  is  extremely  important,  and  offi- 
cers not  insisting  on  this  standard   or  not  recognizing 
the  physical  deficiencies  of  a  bright  lad  of  nineteen 
are  liable  to  serious  error. 

39.  All  military  experience  is  opposed  to  the  en- 
listment of  minors  for  active  service. 

40.  Napoleon   after    Leipsic   said:   "I  must   have 
grown  men ;  boys  serve  only  to  fill  the  hospitals  and 
encumber  the  roadsides/' 

41.  In  Egypt,  in  1798,  the  68th  from  Bombay  was 
composed  chiefly  of  boys.     Fever  broke  out  on  their 


6  KOTES   ON    MILITARY    HYGIENE. 

passage,  they  lost  nearly  half  their  number  and  con- 
tinued so  sickly  that  they  were  reem  barked  and  sent 
back. 

42.  But  the   61st,  over  900  strong,  nearly  all  old 
soldiers,  were  16  weeks  on  board  ship  and  landed 
with  only  one  man  sick. 

(It  is  probable,  however,  that  the  condition  of  the 
transports  and  the  care  exercised  over  the  men  had 
much  to  do  with  their  health  in  both  of  these  cases.) 

43.  In  the  Peninsular  war,  1805-14,  300  men  who 
had  served  5  years  were  regarded  more  effective  than 
a  newly  arrived  regiment  of  1,000  recruits  who  were 
lads. 

44.  In  the  Mexican  war,  1847,  our  medical  officers 
constantly  reported  that  the  inferior  physique  and  es- 
pecially the  youth  of  the  recruits  materially  increased 
the  sick  and  mortality  lists. 

45.  In   the   Crimea,    1854-5,   when    notified    that 
2,000  recruits  were  ready,  Lord  Eaglan  replied  that 
"  those  last  sent  were  so  young  and  unformed  that 
they  fell  victims  to  disease  and  were  swept  away  like 
flies,  so  that  he   preferred  to  wait/'  rather  than  to 
have  young  lads  sent  out  as  soldiers. 

46.  Lord  Hardinge  says  that,  "although  no  men 
were  sent  [to  the  Crimea]  under  19  years  of  age,  yet 
when  sent  out  it  was  found  that  instead  of  being 
composed   of   bone   and    muscle    they   were    almost 
gristle." 

47.  In  General  Roberts's  march  from  Cabul  to  Can- 
dahar  in  1880,  "it  was  the  young  soldiers  who  suc- 
cumbed to  its  fatigues  while  the  old  soldiers  became 
hardier  and  stronger  every  day." 

48.  The  Franco-German  experience  coincides  with 
all  this. 


OF    SOLDI  KIIS.  7 

49.  The    influence   of  cage   upon  disability  in    the 
field  during  the  Civil  War  has  not  been  shown  by  au- 
thentic statistics,  but  the  experience  of  nil   officers 
serving  with   troops   then   will  confirm  the   general 
.-lati'inent  that  very  young  men  generally  broke  down 
first  under  exposure  and  hardship. 

50.  In  peace,  the  Surgeon-General's  report  for  1885 
shows  that  up  to  the  age  of  25  the  rate  of  sickness 
proved   very  much   above  the   mean   for   the  whole 
army. 

51.  "This  general  assent  shows  how  wrong  it  is 
to  expect  any  great  and  long-continued  exercise  of 
force  from  lads  as  young  .as  18  or  20,  and  the  inevi- 
table   consequences  of    taxing  them    beyond    their 
strength. "     (Marshall. ) 

52.  Per  ro/tfra:  Young  men  are  more  easily  trained 
and  moulded  than  older  men,  especially  for  the  cav- 
alry, and  when  well  led  fight  as  well,  as  far  as  mere 
physical  courage  goes. 

.">:;.  But  as  we  cannot  keep  young  soldiers  several 
years  in  training,  and  as  large  bodies  of  troops  will 
only  be  raised  for  sudden  war,  men  not  absolutely 
mature  must  be  rejected. 

54.  The   most    effective   armies   have  been    those 
where  the  youngest  men  were  22. 

55.  Should   the  proposed  military  apprentice - 
authorized,  there  will  be  no  excuse  for  the  Enlistment 
of  minors  in  the  line.  - 

Growtli  and  Development. 

56.  Growth  "  is  the  gradual  increase  to  full  size  by 
the  addition  of  matter/'  and  development  "  is  the  ad- 
vancement of  an  organized  being  from  one  stage  to 
another  towards  a  more  complete  state." 


8  NOTES   ON   MILITARY   HYGIENE. 

57.  A  man  under  22  and  especially  one  under  20  is 
liable  to  break  down,,  because  physical  maturity  does 
not  occur  until  between  23d  and  25th  years. 

The  Human  Bones  and  their  Development. 

58.  The  adult  spine  consists  of  twenty-six  super- 
imposed bones  (vertebrse),  which  support  the  weight 
of  the  body  and  all  that  can  be  placed  on  it. 

59.  The  weakest  point  is  that  of  the  greatest  curve, 
at  the  "hollow  of  the  back/'  and  the  circle  of  the 
body,  the  waist,  is  least  here.     Here  is  most  felt  the 
jar  of  a  false  step,  the  fatigue  of  drills  and  marches, 
and  the  early  aching  in  fevers. 

GO.  The  bodies  of  the  vertebrae  approach  nearly 
their  full  size  and  shape  about  puberty,  but  not 
their  complete  development. 

61.  Between  16th  aud  18th  years  five  sets  of  parts 
to  be  added  (epiphyses)  begin  to  grow  from  separate 
centres,  and  all  are  not  united  till  25th  or  30th  year. 

62.  The  sacrum,  which  transfers  the  weight  of  the 
trunk  to  the  haunch  and  lower  limbs,  consists  of  sep- 
arate bones  with  epiphyseal  plates  that  develop  about 
15th  year  and  are  not  united  until  26th  to  30th. 

63.  The  sacrum  and  hip  bones  together  form  a  but- 
tress and  arches  adapted  to  support  weights,  and  upon 
this  part  men  can  best  support  burdens  whether  in 
military  or  civil  life. 

64.  Eibs  and  all  long  bones  consist  of  a  shaft  and 
epiphyses. 

65.  The  shaft  grows  from  the  middle  toward  the 
ends.     The  epiphyses  are  soft  cartilaginous  material 
in   the  shape   of   bones,  cemented  to   the  bone  by  a 
gluey  substance,  all  which  gradually  harden. 


SKU'<  TIOX   or  SOU>H:I:S. 

66.  Where    the   ribs   hinge   on  the  spine  the  soft 
parts  commence  to  turn  into  bone  about  18th  ami  are 
not  completely  transforms!  until  the  20th  year. 

67.  The  upper  part  of  the  breast  bone  is  separate 
until  the  25th;  the  lower  sections  unite  between  \Joth 
and  25th  years. 

68.  The  shaft  and  shouldcr-cnd  of   the  collar  bone 
begin  to  ossify  before  any  other,  but  the  inner  (breast 
bone)  epiphysis  appears  at   18th  and  ossifies  at  '^th 
year. 

60.  The  shaft  of  the  arm-bom?  grows  until  the 
25tb,  but  is  consolidated  about  21st  year.  The  t\vo 
bones  of  the  forearm  are  consolidated  after  tlie  isili 
and  the  hand  at  the  20th. 

70.  The  haunch  is  consolidated  at  the  -^th  year. 

71.  Similar  conditions  are  true  of  the  oilier  bones 
and  ossification    throughout  the  skeleton  is  not  com- 
plete until  20th-25th  years. 

72.  Other  physiological  considerations  in  eou-nec- 
tion  with   the  young   soldier  are  the  growth  of  the 
bones  and  muscles  in  relation  to  each  other,  and   the 
minute  internal  structural  relation  of  the  bony  ma- 
terial. 

73.  The  skeleton  is  designed  for  locomotion  and  to 
enclose  and  defend  important  organs  of  life. 

74.  The  bones  are  pillars  of  support  and  form  lev- 
ers with  varied  'and  important  movements. 

75.  The  leverage  is  modified,  (1)  as  the  lever  is  in 
one  or  more  pieces  and  is  more  or  less  complete  in  its 
internal  growth,  and  (2)  as   the  points,  ridges   and 
prominences  for  the  attachments  of  the  muscles  and 
tendons  are  completely  or  imperfectly  grown. 

76.  The  bones  become  thicker,  the  joints  stronger 
and  the  shoulders  broader  from  20th  to  25th  years. 


10  NOTES    OK    MILITARY    HYGIENE. 

77.  The  muscles  gradnally  develop  in  strength  up 
to  30th  year. 

78.  The  maximum  height  is  barely  attained  at  25. 
All  the  developments  increase  between  14  and   26, 
and  more  slowly  with  advancing  age. 

Structure  of  Bone. 

79.  Long  bones  are  hollow,  with  hard  dense  walls, 
At  the  joint  extremity  the  outer  surface  expands  into 
irregular  knobs  and  bosses,  and  the  inside  is  filled 
with  a  continuous  mass  of  apparently  irregular  fibres 
and  plates. 

80.  The   short   bones   are  like   the  ends   of   long 
bones. 

81.  These  plates  and  bars  run  straight  and  clear 
from  point  to  point,  cutting  each  other  in  true  right 
angles   and   enclosing    clearly   defined  little   square 
meshes. 

82.  The  tubular  structure  is  the  strongest  for  sup- 
port, and  the  strength  of  bone  for  tension  is  of  the 
same  order  as  for  pressure. 

QQ  Tearing         Crushing 

S3*  limit.  limit. 

Cast  steel 102  145]  1  ., 

Wrought  iron ....     41  22  1  kilogrammes 

Cast  iron 13  73  f    P^r  square 

Bone 9-12  13-10  J    ™ilhmeter. 

84.  Bone  thus  resembles  cast  steel  in  proportion  of 
tenacity   to   crushing,  although   with   much   smaller 
limits. 

85.  But  in  the  expanded  ends,  especially  in  the 
head  of  the  thigh  bone,  it  curves  and  overhangs  the 
shaft,  so  that  increasing  pressure  or  crushing  force 
tends  to  shear  it  oif. 


SKIJ:<TK>N   OF  SOLDI  KI;S.  11 

86.  When    tho    l)oiio   is    still    immature  and    the 
epiphyses  still  separable,  the  lines  of  its  line  internal 
structure  are  necessarily  incomplete  along  the  epiphy- 
seal  junction. 

87.  It  is  only  when  the  bone  is  mature  that  this 
head  is  perfected  and  tho  lines  of  fine  internal  struc- 
ture are   complete  and  fit    to  resist  the  maximum 
pressure. 

88.  It   is  not  to   be   inferred  that  under  ordinary 
conditions  of  exercise  the  epiphyses  of  a  young  recruit 
will  become  detached,  (although  under  irreat    .-train 
that   is  possible.)    hut  the   difference   between    bony 
growth  and  maturity  is  illustrated   by  the  foregoing 
memoranda. 


Effect  of  Pressure  upon  Contents  of 

89.  One  important  function  of  the  skeleton  is  to 
enclose  and  protect  the  heart  and  lungs. 

90.  These  organs  in  the  cavity  of  the  chest  suffer 
more  in  the  recruit  (of  any  age)  than  in  the  seasoned 
soldier,  and  especially  in  the  young. 

91.  "Next  to  the  inspiration  of  bad  air,  the  imper- 
fect  or    continuously   obstructed   expansion   of   the 
chest  tends  more  than  any  cause  we  know  of  to  bring 
about  diseases  of  the  heart  and  lungs."     (Aitken.) 

92.  Pressure  before  or  behind  tends  to  "  set"  grow- 
ing bones  in  an  unnatural  direction,  or  to  cripple  the 
lungs  by  confining  the  chest  walls. 

93.  In  the  field  the    soldier   must  carry  packs  of 
some  sort,  and  their  pressure  especially  when  ill  -ad- 
justed  tends    to  materially   derange  the   contained 
chest  organs. 

94.  Even  canteen  and  haversack  straps  may  press 
upon  the  immature  recruit  to  his  harm. 


12  NOTES   ON   MILITARY   HYGIENE. 


Growth  and  Development  of  Heart  and  Lungs. 

95.  The   greatest   amount   of  the  growth   of  the 
heart  is  from  18th  to  25th  year,  but  the  greatest  pro- 
portion of  growth  is  about  puberty,  when  it   nearly 
doubles  its  size. 

96.  The  relative  capacity  of  the  two  sides  of  the 
heart  change  very  materially  at  different  periods :  at 
birth,  the  right  cavities  are  to  the  left  as  1  :  1£  ;  at 
30,  as  3  :  1 

97.  The  heart  doubles  its  size  during  the  changes 
known  as   puberty.     If    these   extend    through  five 
years  the  heart-increase   each  year  is  one-fifth  ;  but 
if  it  occurs  in  one  year,  the  growth  is  so  much  more 
rapid  that   the  heart  may  become  weak   out   of  all 
proportion  to  its  size. 

98.  A  heart  that  grows  in  one  year  three  times  as 
much  as  in  the  preceding  year  is  almost  necessarily 
weak.     Hence  a  recruit  with  a  so  rapidly  developed 
heart  is  not  acceptable  for  continuous  labor. 

99.  "  The  greatest  strain  is  thrown  on  the  heart 
throughout  adolescence  to  adult  age  and  a  very  con- 
stant group  of  symptoms  indicates  the  cardiac  fail- 
ure that  must  be  looked  for  in  overworked  recruits." 
(Aitken.) 

100.  This   heart-strain    from   excessive  fatigue  in 
those  who  have  grown  rapidly  and  who  have  deficient 
reserve  energy  is  apt  to  lead  to  heart  failure  under 
unwonted  exertion  and  in  emergencies. 

101.  The  lungs  also  increase  in  size  and  weight, 
especially  between  the  14th  and  25th  years,  unless 
crippled  by  an  insufficient  bony  case. 


BBL*  'I  ION    or  >oi.i)i  13 

Effect  of  Drill  upon  Recruits. 

102.  Military  drill   is  intended  (1)  to  instruct  the 
mail  in  certain   movements  for  his  greater  efficiency 

-oldier  acting  with   others,  and  (2)  to  develop  a 
certain  power  of  physical  endurance. 

103.  A  young  recruit  cannot  keep  pure  with  a  full- 
grown    and    completely    trained    man    in    the    ranks, 
mainly   hecanse    his   heart    and    blond-vessels    are  not 
fully  developed  nor  specially  trained. 

104.  Failure  usually    arises    from    attempting  too 
much  at  the  outset;  and  with  nteeibive  work  at  the 
beginning,  or  with    a    sudden   iner  in  forced 
marches,  these  youths  rapidly  break  down. 

105.  Drill  must  begin  within  the  powers    of  endur- 
ance of  the  recruit,  and    the    young  soldier,  usually 
keeping  up  too  long  from   pride,  should    be  encour- 
aged to  fall  out  of  ranks  when  distressed. 

106.  "  The  throb  of  the  heart  and  the  swell  of  the 
arteries  and  veins  must  be  allowed  to  subside  and  set- 
tle down   completely,  so  that  the  lungs  may  resume 
their   peaceful  action  of   easy  breathing   before  .any 
further  drill  exertion  is  attempted."     (Aitken.) 

107.  If  his  breathing  does  not  gradually  improve, 
or  if  the  man's  weight  continues  to  decline,  he  should 
without   further  delay   be  referred    to  the    medical 
officer  for  examination. 

108.  Treatment  in  such  cases  cannot  be  hurried. 
To  take  a  young  soldier  into  hospital  for  a  week  or 
two   only   gives   temporary  ease.     No  medicine  is  a 
substitute    for    strength,   and    it    may    require    six 
months  for  the  heart  to  recover  from  one  strain. 

109.  The  same  symptoms  will  recur  again  and  again 
under   similar  circumstances,  until  the  condition  is 


14  NOTES   ON    MILITARY    HYGIENE. 

outgrown  by  development  maturing,  or  the  heart  is 
permanently  damaged. 

Influence  of  Age  and  Height. 

110.  But  while  immature  men  should  not  be  ac- 
cepted, neither  are  too  old  men  good  recruits.     The 
authorized  limit  of  35  (30  for  cavalry)  is  the  extreme 
under  ordinary  conditions. 

111.  As  long  as  they  are  physically  sound,  recruits 
are  legally  acceptable  under  35,  but  unskilled  com- 
mon laborers  are  liable  to  become  stiffened  in  body 
and  mentally  dulled  as  they  approach  30. 

112.  It  is  an  important  part  of  a  recruiting  officer's 
duty  to  select  critically  only  those  who  will  probably 
become  strong  and  active  soldiers. 

113.  The  test  of  mere  numbers  is  a  very  poor  one 
to  determine  the  efficiency  of  a  recruiting  officer. 

114.  "Nothing   is  so   expensive   as  an  unhealthy 
military  force"  (Farr),  and  "it  is  of  much  more  im- 
portance that  a  soldier  should  be  strong  than  that  he 
should  be  tall."     (Vegetius.) 

115.  Under  existing  orders  very  tall  men  are  prac- 
tically  excluded.     Were    there   no    regulation,   tall 
young   men  would   be    objectionable    because    their 
height  is  often  gained  at  the  expense  of  bulk  or  of 
the  vigor  of  heart  and  lungs. 

116.  A  soldier  is  a  machine  of  two  parts,  legs  and 
arms  offensive,  chest  and  abdomen  vital.     Within  the 
latter  is  generated  the  power  that  makes  the  former 
available. 

117.  An  ill-proportioned  tall  man   is  undesirable. 
If  analysis  of  such  an  applicant  shows  that  he  is  tall 
by  virtue  of  his  legs  and  neck  alone,  remember  that 
he   will  become     tired   sooner;    partly   because    his 


SELECTION   OF   SOLDI  1-Ks.  15 

muscles  are  relatively  smaller  and  the  levers  they 
operate  (the  bones)  are  longer  than  those  of  shorter 
men,  and  partly  because  probably  less  vital  force  is 
generated  in  the  smaller  organs. 

118.  That  the  strongest  army  is  the  best  army,  is  a 
saying  as  old  as  the  Romans,  and  properly  interpreted 
it  is  true.  Other  things  being  e<|iial,  those  with  the 
most  endurance  are  the  best  soldiers.  Certainly  the 
troops  that  inarch  best  are  the  most  efficient. 

Particulars <w  to  J^cndtimj. 

11!).  The  recruiting  regulations  carefully  followed 
are  a  safe  and  explicit  guide.  Mut  there  is  a  constant 
tendency  to  disregard  their  miimtiie,  under  the  feel- 
ing that,  apart  from  obscure  di-eases.  any  officer  ac- 
customed to  soldiers  can  recognize  a  good  recruit  at 
sight. 

Therefore,  disregarding  morbid  conditions  only  dis- 
coverable by  a  physician,  special  attention  is  iinited 
to  the  following  points. 

120.  Should  the  pulse  at  either  wrist  drop  a  beat 
at  intervals,  either  before  or  after  exercise,  reject. 

121.  Vision  of  each  eye  as  tried  by  test-rani  must 
be   acute.     Each  eye  in  turn  should  be  covered  by 
card-board,  not  by  the  hand. 

122.  Hearing  of  each  ear  must  easily  distinguish  or- 
dinary conversation  at  fifty  feet.     Unilateral  deafness 
is  only  distinguishable  by  carefully  closing  each  ear 
in  succession  by  pressure,  and  is  disqualifying. 

123.  The  requirements  of  height,  weight,  and  chest 
capacity  should  be   carefully  observed,  because  they 
are  based  upon  physiological  laws  that  cannot  be  dis- 
regarded with  impunity. 

124-  A  summary  of  the  general  qualifications  is: 


16  NOTES   ON    MILITARY    HYGIENE. 

"  A  tolerably  just  proportion  between  the  different 
parts  of  the  trunk  and  members,  a  well-shaped  head, 
thick  hair,,  a  countenance  expressive  of  health,  with  a 
lively  eye,  skin  not  too  white,  lips  red,  teeth  white 
and  in  good  condition,  voice  strong,  skin  firm,  chest 
well  formed,  belly  lank,  organs  of  generation  well  de- 
veloped, limbs  muscular,  feet  arched  and  of  moderate 
length,  hands  large." 

125.  All  lank,  slight,  puny   men  with  contracted 
figure — men  technically  termed  as  of  "  poor  physique" 
— should  be  set  aside,  for  there  is  no  class  that  fur- 
nishes so  large  a  proportion  to  the  hospital  and  the 
guard-house  as  this. 

126.  The  utmost  care  should   be  had  to   exclude 
men   likely   to   be   intemperate,  for   the    intolerable 
nuisance  that  drunkards  are  within  the  service  war- 
rants the  risk  of  occasionally  rejecting  a  sober  man 
rather  than   to   accept   those  who   constantly   make 
trouble  in  peace  and  who  cannot  be  depended  on  in 
war. 

127.  Flatfootedness,  a  peculiar  dread  of  many  re- 
cruiting officers,  and  thus  leading  to   the  occasional 
rejection  of  fair  men,  is  rarely  seen  among  the  whites 
of  this  country. 

128.  In  the  disqualifying  flat  foot,  the  inner  ankle 
is  very  prominent  and  lower  than  usual ;  there  is  a 
hollow  of  greater  or  less  extent  below  the  outer  ankle; 
the  foot  is   not  well   arched,  and   is  broader  at  the 
ankle  than  near  the  toes;  the  inner  side  is  flat  and 
occasionally  convex,  and  when  placed  on  the  ground 
the  finger  cannot  be  introduced  beneath  the  sole  ;  the 
weight   of   the  body  rests   on  the  inner  side  of  the 
sole,  and  the  ordinary  motions  of  the  ankle  are  im- 
paired. 


SELECTION    OF   SOLDIERS.  17 

129.  For  bunions,,  large  or  recently  inflamed,  re- 
ject.    A  tightly  fitting  shoe  will  at  once  disqualify 
with  them. 

130.  Corns  on  the  sole  are  mischievous,  and  when 
under  the  base  of  the  great  toe  condemn. 

131.  Examine  the  head  with  the  fingers  carefully, 
and  for  any  depression   not  certainly  natural,  or  for 
any   sensitive    spot,    reject.     Such    mrn     in  variably 
break    down    under    exposure   to   heat  or  to  great 
fatigue. 

132.  No   precise   standard  of  intelligence   can  be 
formulated,  but  care  must  be  taken  to  exclude  men 
not  capable  of   appreciating  the  improved  weapons 
and  the  more  responsible  duties  of  the  modern  sol- 
dier. 

133.  While  all  joints  must  be  mobile,  special  pains 
should  be  paid  to  the  right  thumb  and  forefinger 
which  control  the  hammer  and  trigger.     The  strength 
of  the  thumb  is  very  important. 

134.  Sound  opposing  teeth  to  chew  well  the  hard 
food  of  the  field  are  necessary.     At  the  least  there 
must  be  two  good   grinders   opposite  each  other  on 
each  side.     Uu masticated  food  leads  to  sickness. 

135.  The  testicles  must  be  handled,  and  if  either  is 
sensitive  or  both  have  dwindled,  reject. 

136.  For  enlarged  veins  of  the  ankle,  behind  the 
knee,  or  on  the  thigh,  reject. 

137.  Determine  the  soundness  of  the  lower  limbs 
by  vigorous  exercise.     Observe  keenly  that  each  limb 
does  its  full  share  of  work.     Count  silently  the  num- 
ber of  hops  with  each  leg  in  passing  twice  over  a  given 
distance;  should  they    differ,  there   is   weakness   or 
stiffness. 

138.  A  toe,  usually  the  second,  sometimes  is  stiff- 


18  NOTES    ON    MILITARY    HYGIENE. 

ened  at  right  angles  so  that  the  nail  touches  the 
ground.  Reject,  because  sand  will  work  under  the 
nail,  and  cause  inflammation.  This  is  known  as 
"  hammer  toe,"  or  "  walking  on  the  nail." 

139.  Foatid  perspiration  of  the  feet  is  intolerable 
in  a  Squad-room, 

140.  Unsightly  markings,,  leading  to  rude  jests,  are 
disqualifying. 

141.  The  preceding  points  are  those  most  apt  to  be 
overlooked  by  inexperienced  officers,  and  stress  is  laid 
upon  their  importance  in  securing  sound  men. 

142.  Vaccination  as  a  practical  immunity  against 
small-pox  should  be  carefully  but  not  too  frequently 
practised.     Thorough  vaccination  in  infancy  repeated 
at  the  age  of  14-16  will  generally  protect,  but  every 
recruit  should  be  presented  for  examination  as  soon 
as  he  reaches  a  proper  station. 

General    Considerations. 

143.  In  war,  especially  under  a  general  enrolment, 
men  with  physical  blemishes  may  properly  be  accepted 
provided  their   general   health   is   sound,  but  every 
variation  from  the  standard  in  peace  or  war  should 
be  carefully  noted  on  the  descriptive  lists. 

144.  In  raising  new  troops  when  it  is  possible  to 
select,  for  sharp  and   immediate  active  service  take 
town-bred  men.     If  a  year  or  two  can  be  had  in  which 
to  train  them,  take  country-bred  men. 

145.  Open-air  military  life  is  physical  promotion 
to  city  men  accustomed  to  irregular  hours,  unwhole- 
some meals,  and  poorly  ventilated  rooms. 

146.  To  country  lads  the  irregular  and  sometimes 
scanty  meals,  broken  rest,  necessity  for  prompt  and 
exact  action,  and  above  all  the  certainty  of  acquiring 


SELECTION    OF    SOLDIERS.  19 

/ 
such  diseases  us  measles,  \vhoopin<4-eou<;-h  and  mumps, 

whicli  town  boys  always  have  in  childhood,  arc  \<T\ 
exhausting.  After  a  year's  training  country  youths 
;ir»-  more  valuable. 

147.  Measles  is  a  particularly  serious  camp  disease, 
always  to  be  anticipated   in  newly  raised  commands, 
especially  ravaging  those  from  the  rural  districts.     In 
the  Civil  War  there  were   67,700  cases  with    K 
deaths  among  white  troops  and  8,555  cases  with 
deaths  among  colored  troops  in  the  Union  army. 

148.  The  matter  of  rorruiting  is  thus  dwelt  upon 
because  it  is  the  foundation   upon    which   the  whole 
military  organization  rests.     It  is  impossible  to  have 
an   efficient   army   without   carefully   selected    men. 
And  after  enlistment  an  equal  duty  rests  upon  com- 
pany officers  to  see  that  these  men  are  not  injured  by 
their  new  surroundings. 

( 'iwijHirison  between  Sickness  and  Violence. 

149.  Very  little  sickness  is  spontaneous,  and  with 
an  army  of  sound  men  there  is  no  good    reason   why 
there'   should   be   much   loss   of   duty   from   di 
When   company   officers   study   for    themselves    the 
problems  of  ventilation,  of  food,  of  the  healthfulness 
of  camps,  of  water-supply,  of  the  disposal  of  excreta, 
when  they  concern  themselves  with  soldiers  as  physio- 
logical agents,  the  army  will   be   prepared   for   the 
highest  exhibition  of  sustained  action. 

150.  As  would  be  supposed,  in  peace,  when  casual- 
ties by  violence  are  few,  the  disability  by  disease  is  out 
of  all  proportion  to  that  by  injury.     But  in  war  also 
deaths  from  sickness,    quite    independently  of  that 
sickness  which  is  recovered  from  or  which  leads  to 
discharge  without  immediate  loss  of  life,  outnumber 


20  NOTES   ON   MILITAKY    HYGIENE. 

many-fold  those  from  battle.     Unlike  in  peace,  very 
many  of  the  disease-causes  of  war  are  unavoidable. 

151.  In  the  Mexican  War,  of  the  regular  force  73 
officers  and  862  men,  total  935,  were  killed  or  died 
of  wounds,  and  85  officers  and  4,629  men,  total  4,714, 
died  of  disease  in  the  field,  or  rather  less  than  1  to  5. 

Of  the  volunteers  1,549  officers  and  men  died  by 
violence  and  10,986  by  disease,  or  a  little  less  than 
1  to  7. 

152.  During   the    Rebellion    99,183   white   troops 
died  from  the  casualties  of  battle  and  171,806  from 
disease,  or  nearly  1  to  2 ;  while  for  colored  troops  it 
was  3,417  by  violence  and  29,963  by  disease,  or  1  to 
8.7. 

153.  The  German  army  in  the  war  of  1870-1  is 
the  only  one  known  to  have  kept  its  mortality  from 
disease  below  that  from  battle.     This  probably  de- 
pended upon  the  shortness  of  the  war,  the  rapid  suc- 
cession of  battles,  the  trained  troops,  and  presumably 
upon  its  exact  discipline  being  exerted  for  the  care  of 
the  men  as  well  as  in  other  directions. 


II. 

MILITARY  CLOTHING. 

Its  Object. 

154.  As  war    tears    away  the    non-essentials  but 
does  not  supply  the  deficiencies  it  exposes,  the  cloth- 
ing he  is  compelled  to  wear  should  be  suited  to  a  sol- 
dier's arduous  work. 

155.  The  essential  object  of  all  clothing  is  the  pro- 
tection of  the  person  from  extremes  of  temperature,^ 
by  conserving  bodily  heat  in  cold  weather  and  pre- 
venting suffering  from  either  solar  heat  or  that  grnrr- 
ated  by  exercise. 

15G.  Soldiers  should  be  dressed  as  nearly  alike  as 
possible,  and  uniforms  have  obvious  military  advan- 
tages. 

Distinctive  Markings. 

157.  Each   arm    should    be    distinguished,    as   at 
present,  by  its  appropriate  dress,  and  in  large  com- 
mands the  divisions  may  conveniently  be  identified 
by  corps  badges. 

158.  Corps   badges   are   devices   systematized   and 
attached  to  the  cap:   e.g.,  a  Maltese  cross,  a  trefoil,  a 
diamond  in  cloth,  is  the  device  for  the  corps;  then 
those  of  the  first  division  would  be  red,  of  the  second 
white,  of  the  third  blue  on  a  white  ground,  the  fourth 
orange. 

159.  They  should  be  inconspicuous  to  the  enemy, 
but  serve  both  for  identification  and  as  a  sign  of 
comradeship  within  the  army. 

21 


NOTES   ON   MILITARY   HYGIENE. 

160.  There   is   a    constant    temptation   with   new 
troops  to  wear  some  conspicuous  mark  of  regimental 
significance,  whose  ultimate  effect  is  to  draw  fire. 

161.  Regimental  facings  are  sometimes  pressed  in 
the  interest  of  regimental  esprit.     Good  results  would 
follow  with  good  troops.     But  a  minor  obstacle  is 
that  of  cost  and  a  serious  one  that  of  supply. 

In  the  Crimea  the  British  suffered  severely  in  at- 
tempting to  keep  up  the  regimental  clothing,  and  un- 
til it  was  abandoned  the  men  were  not  sufficiently  clad. 

162.  Our  State  troops  will  probably  long  maintain 
showy  dress  uniforms  for  purposes  of  display.     But 
their  fighting  clothing,  the  undress,  should  be  uni- 
form with  that  of  the  United  States  for  convenience 
of  administration. 

Color. 

163.  Color  is  a  physiological  and  a  military  factor 
in  clothing.     Military  garments  should  be  neutral  in 
tint.     Cadet  gray  is  the  best  of  colors,  and  next  to  it 
a  butternut  dye,  somewhat  lighter  than  the  fatigue 
overalls. 

164.  Blue  will  probably  always  remain  the  United 
States  uniform,  and  we   can  afford   to  sacrifice  some 
material  advantages  to  patriotic  association.     But  it 
should  be  light  rather  than  dark  in  shade,  as  is  the 
tendency  in  the  later  issues. 

165.  Colors  draw  fire  in  action  in  proportion  to 
their  conspicuousness,  red  being  the  most  deadly  and 
white  the  next.     Scarlet  tells  with  great  effect  upon 
the  wearer,  and  certain  zouave   regiments  certainly 
left  some  dead  upon  the  field  that  would  have  been 
saved  in  a  plainer  dress.     The  old-fashioned  white 
cross-belts  have  had  many  victims. 


MILITARY    CLOTHING.  23 

|       1G6.  Dust-gray  is  the  least  readily  observer!  of  all 
colors,  aiid  the  ordinary  soil  of  the  field  is  less  marked 
.    upon  it. 

167.  Protection  against  the  sun's  rays  depends  en- 
tirely upon  color,  irrespective  of  texture. 
/        168.  Color  does  not  influence  bodily  heat,  nor  the 
external  temperature  except  as  directly  derived  from 
the  sun. 

169.  White  absorbs  the  least  heat,  and  is  therefore 
the  coolest;  black  the  most,  and  is  the  warmest;  and 
blue  is  next  to  black. 

I      170.    (iray.  because  of  its  coolness   in  the  sun  and 
its   inconspicuously  :;  i     nearly    ev< <ry     back- 

i  ground,  is  the  best  military  color. 

171.  The  order   in  which  colors  draw   lire  is  red, 
white,  black  or  dark  blue,  light  blue,  butternut,  dust- 

gray- 

172.  The  absorption  of  odor  depends  partly  upon 
texture  in   proportion  to   the   hygroscopic  power  of 
the  material  and  partly  upon  color.     Black  absorbs 
odors  the  most,  blue  next,  white  least. 

173.  White  canvas  overalls,  therefore,  are  a  rational 
dress  for  men  grooming,  as  against  blue  woollen. 

MATERIALS. 
Cotton  and  Linen. 

9 

174.  Cotton  and  linen  both  conduct  heat  rapidly, 
and  both  are  very  non-absorbent  of  water. 

175.  Bodily  exercise  generates  heat,  which  ordinar- 
ily  is   reduced  by  the   evaporation  of   the   increased 
perspiration.     When  exercise  ceases  the  heat  gener- 
ated is  correspondingly  reduced,  but  the  perspiration 
persists  for  a  time. 


24  NOTES  OK   MILITARY   HYGIENE. 

176.  Cotton  and  linen,  allowing  the  evaporation  of 
this  perspiration  at  a  rate  that  would  rapidly  chill 
the  body  when  it  remains  at  rest,  therefore  are  not 
suitable  for  ordinary  military  clothing,  and  are  posi- 
tively dangerous  for  those  liable  to  violent  exertion 
with  abrupt  rests. 

177.  When  starched  they  are  nearly  as  impermeable 
as  wool  to  air,  until   perspiration  breaks  down   the 
starch. 

178.  Cotton  is  very  cheap,  and  wears  very  well. 

179.  But  at  extreme  southern  stations  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  air  in  the  shade  for  long  periods  together 
is   above  the  normal  temperature  of  the  body,  and 
slowly  enervates  the  system.    It  is  therefore  unreason- 
able and  hurtful  to  put  the  soldier  under  artificial 
conditions  (such  as  wearing  heavy  and  lark  wool)  to 
increase  that  embarrassment. 

180.  A  thin  white  cotton  tissue  worn  over  a  cloth 
coat  will  reduce  the  temperature  in   the  sun's  rays 
12.6°  F. 

181.  Excellent   reports   by   the  medical  officer  at 
Ringgold  Barracks  and  by  the  Medical  Director  Dept. 
Texas,  1886,  looked  to  white  duck  or  linen  uniform, 
with  light  cotton  or  mixed  cotton  and  wool  under- 
clothing, or  to  a  dust-color  uniform,  one  third  wool, 
two  thirds  cotton. 

182.  Duck  outer-clothing  may  now  (1889)  be  issued 
experimentally  at  some  stations,  and  reports  of  its  use 
will  be  received  with  interest 

183.  It  may  be  assumed  that  while  all  wool  is  un- 
reasonably oppressive,  an  entire  cotton  dress  would  be 
dangerous  for  men  liable  to  the  sudden  exertions  of 
military  life. 


MILITARY   CLOTHING.  25 


Wool 

. 

184.  Wool  conducts  heat  badly,  and  absorbs  water 
freely  in  two  ways.     The  water   permeates  and  dis- 
tends the  fibres  of  the  wool  (hygroscopic  water),  and 
lies  between  the  fibres  (water  of  interposition). 

185.  In  relation  to  cotton  or   linen,  wool  absorbs 
hygroscopically  at  least  double  in  proportion  to  its 
weight  and  quadruple  in  proportion  to  its  surface. 

186.  Wool,  by  absorbing  the  perspiration,  counter- 
acts the  evaporation  that  persists  after  excessive  exer- 
cise.    Dry  woollen  clothing  condenses  the  vapor  from 
the  surface  of  the  body,  and  gives  out  much  heat  that 
had  become  latent  when  the  water  of  the  body  was 
vaporized  (insensible  perspiration). 

187.  In   cotton   or  linen  the   perspiration  passes  ' 
directly  through,  and  evaporates  on  the  outer  sur- 
face. 

188.  While  dry  wool  is  of  course  better  than  wet 
woollen  clothing,  it  is  rare  that  woollen  clothes  become 
saturated  with  bodily  moisture;  and  even  when  they 
do,  they  can  be  partly  dried  by  wringing,  and  thus 
become  useful  for  further  condensation  and  absorp- 
tion. 

189.  Wool  is  not  easily  penetrated  by  cold  winds, 
and  its  quality  of  non-conduction  makes  it  useful  in 
cold  and  oppressive  in  warm  climates. 

190.  The  chief    disadvantage  of  woollen  clothing,  '• 
where  the  climate  is  suitable,  is  the  difficulty  in  wash- 
ing  it.     Badly  washed,  it  shrinks  in  the  fibre,  and 
the  whole  after  a  time  becomes  smaller,  harder,  and 
probably  less  absorbent.     This  is  the  bar  to  the  issue 
of  pure  woollen  underclothing  for  the  field. 


26  NOTES   OK    MILITARY   HYGIENE. 

191.  The  remedy  is  the  admixture  of  about  30  per 
cent,  of  cotton,  making  the  so-called  merino. 

192.  There  is  some  reason  to  suppose  that  an  all- 
wool  dress  acts  as  a  partial  preventive  against  the 
malarial  poison. 

193.  To  wash  woollens,  they  should  be  placed   in 
hot  soap-suds  and  moved  about  freely;  they  should 
then  be  plunged  in  cold  water,  and  when  the  soap  has 
disappeared   should   be   hung  up  without  wringing. 
Woollens    should    never     be    rubbed     nor    wrung. 
(Parkes.)     Or:  Put  the  woollens  into  water  by  them- 
selves ;  do  not  rub  soap  on  them,  but  have  it  abun- 
dant  in  the   water  ;  move    them  about    freely,   for 
cleansing;  rinse  them  well,  without  rubbing,  in  clean 
water  of  the  same  temperature  ;  hang  them  to  dry, 
without  rubbing  or  wringing,  but  be  careful  to  stretch 
them  a  little  while  drying. 

194.  Tests  for  woollen  cloth:  When  held  against 
the  light,  it  should  show  a  uniform  texture,  free  from 
holes;  folded  and  suddenly  stretched,  it  should  give 
a  clear  ringing  note;  it  should  resist  well  when  vio- 
lently stretched  ;  to   the  touch  the  texture  must  be 
smooth  and  soft;  to  the  eye  it  should  be  close,  and 
free  from  straggly  hair.     The  heavier  it  is  to  the  size, 
the  better. 

195.  Shoddy  Isold,  used,  and  worked-over  wool  and 
cloth.     It  is  often  mixed  with  fresh  wool,  to  the  det- 
riment of  the  latter,  and  is  most  easily  detected  by 
the  tearing  power.     This  adulteration  prevails  under 
the  greed  of  war. 

196.  Serge  is  a  species  of  worsted  that  has  the  ad- 
vantage of  lightness  combined  with  the  good  qualities 
of  the  lesser  woollens. 

197.  Closely  woven  cloth,  whatever  the  material, 


MILITARY    < 'LOTH  ING.  27 

parts  with  dust  more  easily  than  that  of  loose  tex- 
ture. 

Other  Materials. 

198.  Other  materials  used  as  auxiliary  clothing  are 
leather,  canvas,  India-rubber  and  oiled  cloth. 

199.  Leather  when  properly  tanned  is  practically 
impervious  to  the  wind,  and  is  very  warm;  but  it  is 
only  fit  for  rainless  climates,  except  as  foot-gear. 

200.  Canvas  sheds  water,  and  is  an  excellent  non- 
conductor of  heat,  and  lined  with  wool  it  is  admirable 
against  cold. 

201.  "  Slickers,"  made  by  thoroughly  washing  can- 
vas and  soaking  it  with  raw  oil  slowly  dried  in  the 
sun,  are  admirable  against  rain,  although  not  officially 
recognized. 

202.  India-rubber  has  a  temporary  but  invaluable 
use  against  rain,  but  cannot  be  worn  persistently  on 
account  of  its  retaining  the  bodily  heat  and  the  per- 
spiration.    It  loses  its  elasticity  in  very  cold  climates 
and  becomes  too  distensible  in  very  warm  ones.     It 
ultimately  rots  by  the  absorption  of  oxygen.     As  a 
water-proof  sheet  to  place  on  the  ground,  it  is  of  great 
value. 


Head  Covering. 

203.  The  ideal  military  hat  should  protect  against 
heat,  cold,  rain,  and  the  glare  of  the  sun.     It  should 
be  attractive  on  parade,  convenient  under  arms,  and 
useful  in  bivouac.     Such  has  not  yet  been  adopted. 
The  great  variety  of  hats  authorized   illustrates  the 
difficulty. 

204.  The  felt  helmet,  heavy,   hot,   inflexible,  and 
oppressive,  is  an  imitation  of  foreign  dress,  having  no 


28  HOTES  OK   MILITAKY   HYGIETsTE. 

value  except  for  show,  and  that  at  great  waste  of 
vital  force. 

205.  The  white  helmet  is  a  comfortable  protection 
against  the  summer  sun ;  but  it  is  unfit  for  cold  seasons, 
and  is  too  conspicuous  and  inflexible  for  the  field. 

206.  The  forage  cap  protects  against  neither  ex- 
treme of  climate.     With  an  open-air  temperature  of 
90.2°  F.,  the  temperature  within  the  crown  of  a  for- 
age cap  worn  in  the  sun  was  100.5°,  in  a  black  felt 
hat  98.3°,  in  an  ordinary  straw  hat  95°,  and  in  a  ca- 
det helmet  92.5°. 

207.  A  military  cap  should  always  be  high  enough 
to  clear  the  crown  of  the  head,  and  in  warm  climates 
ventilation  should  be  provided.     Wet  muslin  in  the 
top  of  any  head-covering  guards  against  sunstroke. 

208.  The   campaign   hat  as  issued  is  a  drab  felt, 
with  high  crown  and  broad  brim  ;  fairly  but  not  per- 
fectly suited  to  the  field,   but  not  well  adapted  to 
garrison. 

209.  An  ordinary  sportsman's  hat,  with  high  crown, 
double  peak,  and  folding  flaps,  as  evolved  by  hunters, 
would  fulfil  the  requirements  of  open-air  life.     Of 
neutral   color,    to   be   decorated   to   taste.     For   hot 
weather  it  should  be  of  light  canvas,  and  for  cold  sea- 
sons lined. 

210.  For  mere  parade  purposes,  any  hat  not  too  un- 
comfortable, as  desired. 

Coats. 

211.  The  present  dress-coat  is  closely  fitting,  warm, 
and  oppressive;  it  compresses  the  muscles,  and  inter- 
feres with  their  action  and  with  the  expansion  of  the 
chest  in  direct  proportion  to  the  pressure.     It  is  the 
most  unhygienic  and  therefore  unmilitary  article  of 


MILITARY    CLOTHING.  29 

a  soldier's  apparel,  because  it  directly  antagonizes  the 
vigorous  exertion  lie  must  make  in  the  field,  and  to 
which  all  his  training  is  supposed  to  be  directed.  The 
practical  evidence  of  this  is  its  invariable  abandon- 
ment when  the  field  is  taken. 

The  dress-coat  is  merely  a  costly  and  hurtful  agent  / 
of  display. 

212.  The  present  undress  coat  is  a  loose,   fairly- 
fitting  ilannel  sack,  with  pockets  in  the  breast  and 
the  side  skirts.     When  sufficiently  loose  it  is  not  con- 
spicuously bad,  but  it  is  unsightly  when  the  belt  is 
worn. 

213.  The  hunting  shirt,  to  which  in  some  form  all 
woodsmen  and  frontiersmen  come,  is  the  natural  and 
typical  military  dress,  and  by  slow  degrees  the  work- 
ing dress  of  the  army  is  approaching  it. 

214.  The  ideal  military  blouse  should  follow  the 
figure  loosely,  with  yokes  and  gores;  be  large  in  the 
shoulder  and  arm  for  unconstrained   exertion,  and 
small  at  the  wrist;  full  in  the  body  for  abundant  un- 
derclothing and  free  motion;  to  have  a  belt  between 
the  body  and  skirt  upon  which  the  waist  belt  should 
fit,  and  should  be  held  together  in  front  by  an  inner 
belt  with  graduated  fastenings;  to  have  stout  pockets 
in  the  body  and  skirt;  skirt  just  short  enough  to 
clear  the  ground  when  kneeling  to  fire.     It  should  be 
made  of  closely-milled  light  woollen  cloth,  or  a  good 
grade  of  navy  flannel. 

215.  The  general  and  only  objection  made  to  such 
a  dress  is  to  call  it  slouchy.     But  no  man  held  in 
position   by  his   clothes   is  either   very  vigorous   or 
soldierly.     Setting  up,  not  tight  clothing,  makes  the 
martial  figure, 


30  NOTES    ON    MILITARY    HYGIENE. 

Shirts. 

216.  A  knit  woollen  undershirt,  which  sometimes  is 
unbearable  by  delicate  skins,  and  formerly,  at  least, 
was  too  short,  is  issued.     The  later  issues  are  better. 

217.  It  should   be   one  third   cotton  for  ordinary 
issue,  and  in  three  grades  of   thickness.     A  soldier 
should  be  allowed  to  draw  two  sizes,  to  wear  one  over 
the  other  if  necessary.     In  hot  climates  this  should 
be  two-thirds  cotton. 

218.  Overshirts  of  flannel  of  various  patterns  have 
lately  been  issued  tentatively.     The  best  has  a  rolling 
collar  and  breast  pockets,  is  reasonably  full,  and  may 
be  worn  without  the  coat  on  fatigue.     It  approaches 
the  hunting   shirt,  and   is  comfortable   and   useful. 
These  should  be  issued  in  three  grades  and  many 
sizes  with  and  without  collars,  for  two  or  more  to  be 
worn  together. 

219.  Animal  heat  is   best  conserved  by  several  su- 
perimposed similar  garments,  taking  advantage  of  the 
contained  layers  of  air  which  are  poor  conductors. 
This  is  the  custom  of  lumbermen  and   ice-cutters, 
who  discard  overcoats  while  working. 

220.  The  chief  utility  of  overcoats  is  against  storms, 
and  when  not  much  independent  motion  of  the  limbs 
is  required. 

221.  Color  has  no  influence  upon  animal  heat,  but 
dark  colors  absorb  animal  odors;  hence  undershirts 
should  be  light.     All  shirts  should  be  long  enough 
after  washing  to  fully  protect  the  abdomen. 

222.  In  the  field  an  extra  shirt,  for  wearing  next 
the  body,  should  always  be  carried,  and  the  two  shirts 
may  be  worn  alternately.     At  the  close  of  the  day's 
work    the   worn   shirt   should   be  taken   off,   dried, 


MILITARY    C'LuTllINii.  31 

stretched,  well  beaten,  and  hung  in  the  wind  and 
sun.  This  should  be  done  even  when  then-  is  no 
change, 

2\!:>.  The  combination  of  perspiration  and  dust  is 
very  disagreeable  and  hurtful,  and  drawers,  stock- 
ings, and  trousers  should  be  treated  as  the  shirts. 

224.  The  persons  and  underclothing  of  men  should 
be  carefully  inspected  for  cleanliness,  in  garrison  and 
in  camp. 

225.  Dirty  troops  are  always  sickly  troops,  and  men 
with  clean  shirts  in  their  knap.-acksat  inspection  may 
wear  soiled  clothes  and  have  dirty  skins. 

Trousers. 

226.  Trousers  should  be  larg'1  <>ver  the  lower  pelvis; 
snug  over  the  upper   hips,  with   broad    inner  hell  for 
secondary  support;    no  suspenders;    ample   pockets; 
narrow  and  pliable  bottoms,  or  cut  so  that  they  may 
be  narrow  or  full   at  pleasure.      In  practice  stockings 
are  drawn  over  the  trousers'  bottoms  in   mud   and 
dust. 

Gaiters. 

227.  Gaiters  or  leggings  are   of  doubtful   utility. 
All  additional  articles  are  objectionable  as  such ;  when 
tight  enough  to  remain  in  place,  these  are  liable  to  be 
too  tight,  and  to  cause  the  feet  and  ankles  to  swell  ; 
cotton  and  light  canvas  wrinkle  into  bands,  and  light 
leather  becomes  harsh  after  wetting.     Excellent  under 
special   conditions,    but   objectionable    as    a   regular 
supply. 

Drawers. 

228.  Drawers  are  primarily  for  cleanliness,  second 
arily   for   warmth.     As    now    issued,  the    soldier    is 


32  NOTES-  ON   MILITARY   HYGIENE. 

tempted  to  discard  them  in  hot  weather,  to  his  ulti- 
mate discomfort  and  occasional  risk  of  health.  They 
should  be  of  three  grades  and  many  sizes,  and  cut  as 
proposed  for  trousers. 

Stockings. 

229.  Stockings  are  now  issued  in  woollen  and  cotton. 
Woollen  stockings  frequently  cause  free  perspiration 
even  in  winter,  when  by  the  retention  of  moisture  the 
feet  are  chilled. 

230.  Wet  feet  may  be  uncomfortable,  but  are  rarely 
harmful  to  a  man  in  good  health  who  is  taking  active 
exercise.     It  is  when  he  allows  himself  to  be  chilled 
that  he  takes  cold.     But  to  be  sedentary  with  wet 
feet  may  be  dangerous. 

231.  A  wet  skin  or  wet  feet  under  extreme  cold  are 
dangerous.     An   experienced   man   who   has  broken 
through  the  ice  in  the  "bitter  weather  of  the  north- 
west will  not  attempt  to  proceed  until  he  has  dried 
himself  and  his  clothes,  stripping  if  necessary  to  do 
it,  and  making  if  possible  some  sort  of  fire. 

Shoes  and  Boots. 

232.  Campaigns  are  won  by  marching,  and  soldiers 
cannot  march  with  crippled  feet.     Even  in  the  cav- 
alry a  large  part  of  the  duty  is  performed  on  foot,  and 
boots  and  shoes  are  potent   to   preserve  or  damage 
those  important  members. 

233.  A  good  shoe  should  have  a  thick,  wide  sole,  to 
project  beyond  the  upper  leather;  a  low,  broad  heel ; 
no  seams  to  press  upon  the  skin  ;  when  sewed,  thread 
well  waxed  and  stitches  numerous ;  should  allow  one 
tenth  in  length  and  more  in  breadth  for  the  expan- 
sion of  the  foot ;  should  be  large  enough  across  the 


MILITARY     CLOTH  IK  <i.  33 

instep,  but  nowhere  too  large  nor  with  rough  inner 
seams,  lest  the  folds  made  in  fastening  chafe,  and  the 
friction  of  the  moving  shoe  blister. 

234.  A  common  error  is  an  excess  of  leather  in 
front  of  and  a  deficiency  over  the  instep. 

235.  The  present  shoe  can  probably  be  improved 
by  making  it  high  enough  to  embrace  the  ankle  and 
wide  enough  to  enclose  the  trousers'  !<•:;•  when  d« 
with  a  slit  and  tongue  in  front  over  which  the  Mdrs 
may  lace,  like  the  Thompson  hunting-shoe. 

236.  The  most  constant  and  careful  supervision  is 
necessary  to  prevent  men  wearing  unauthorized  shoes, 
which  are  very  liable  to  injure  their  feet  marching. 

237.  Good  shoes  will  last  about  two  months  con- 
stantly marching  over  reasonably  rough  roads,  and 
much  longer  under  more  favorable  conditions.     But 
only  brass-screwed  or  hob-nailed  soles  will  withstand 
marching  in  climate  and  soil  like  those  of  Arizona. 

238.  Boots  suited  for  the  saddle  are  apt  to  chafe 
in  walking,  and   cavalry  should  carry  shoes  for  dis- 
mounted and  camp  duty. 

239.  To  substitute  for  the  boot  a  shoe  with  a  heavy 
detachable  leg  and  stiff  brace  for  mounted  service, 
would  probably  add  to  the  comfort  and  the  efficiency 
of  cavalry. 

240.  Campaign   shoes   weigh   2J   Ibs.   a  pair,  and 
the  extra  pair  required  to  be  carried  is  a  heavy  tax 
for  infantry  to  bear.     The  barrack  shoe,  or  a  similar 
water-proof  shoe,  might  be  taken  for  the  carnp ;  and 
men  should  be  taught  to  cobble  and  to  apply  glued 
patches. 

241.  Boots  and  shoes  in  the  field  should  be  care- 
fully water-proofed,  for  which  Parkes  gives  these  prac- 
tical directions:  Dissolve  half  a  pound  of  shoemakers' 


34  NOTES    ON    MILITARY    HYGIENE. 

dubbing  carefully  with  gentle  heat  in  half  a  pint  each 
of  linseed-oil  and  solution  of  India-rubber.  As  this 
is  very  combustible,  great  care  must  be  taken.  It 
should  be  rubbed  into  the  boots,  and  be  renewed  about 
once  in  three  months.  The  solution  of  India-rubber 
is  in  ether,  Avhich  evaporates  easily,  and  is  extremely 
inflammable. 

242.  Good  marching  is  the  complement  and  some- 
times the  equivalent  of  good  fighting;  and  careful  in- 
spection of  the  feet  and  instruction  as  to  their  care 
are  necessary,  especially  with  raw  troops. 

243.  An  infantry  officer  should  be  as  solicitous  as 
to  the  care  of  his  men's  feet  as  a  cavalry  officer  is  of 
his  horses',  and  should  pay  close  personal  attention  to 
them. 

244.  When   unaccustomed   to  marching,  the  feet 
should  be  well  soaped  or  greased  before  starting,  to 
prevent   chafing.     At   the   end   of   the   march  they 
should  be  washed  or  wiped  very  clean  and  dry,  for 
which  a  very  little  water  is  sufficient.     The  feet  may 
be  toughened  by  soaking  in  a  strong  tepid  solution  of 
alum  when  practicable. 

245.  A  blister  should  be  opened  by  a  small  hole  at 
the  lowest  point,  allowing  the  fluid  to  drain.     The 
skin  should  not  be  torn.     For  positively  sore  feet  the 
man  should  promptly  report  sick,  which  will  shorten 
the  disability  and  relieve  the  intense  misery. 

246.  The  German  army  is  said  to  use  successfully 
this  powder  for  the  prevention  of  sore  feet :  Salicylic 
acid  three  parts,  starch  ten  parts,  pulverized  soap- 
stone  eighty-seven  parts,  each  by  weight.     It  is  sifted 
in  the  shoes  and  stockings  to  keep  the  feet  dry,  to 
prevent  chafing,  and  to  heal  sore  spots. 


MILITARY    CLOTHING.  35 

Other  Articles  of  Clothing. 

247.  The  blankets  and  overcoats  are  excellent,  and 
it  is  doubtful  whether  they  can  bo  improved  upon  ex- 
cept by  lining  the  latter  for  cold  stations. 

248.  The  canvas  over-suits  are  very  useful  parts  of 
the  clothing  allowance,  and  there  arc  many  occasions 
when  they  might  with  great  advantage  !•<•  taken  into 
the  field. 

249.  The  special  articles,  such  as  hoods,  gloves, 
over-shoes,  and  overcoats  of  extra  warmth,  now  i 

for  protection  against  very  severe  weather,  are  fully 
justified  by  the  causes  leading  to  their  introduction 
and  the  results  following  their  086. 

250.  Formerly  15    per  cent,  of  exposed  garrisons 
were  off  duty  several  weeks  each  winter  from  frost- 
bite, not  to  speak  of  inability  to  take  the  field.     Now 
frost-bite  on  duty  in  men  thus  protected  is  very  rare. 

251.  Abdominal  protectors,  small  aprons  made  of 
two  thicknesses  of  flannel  sewed  or  quilted  together 
and  worn  next  the  skin  over  the  bowels,  materially 
lessen     those   bowel    affections    that   depend    upon 
abrupt     changes    of  temperature.     These    are    not 
issued,  but  there  is  no  reason  why  they  should  not 
be  in  sub-tropical  climates  and  elsewhere  on  occasion. 

252.  Ponchocs  and  water-proof  blankets  admirably 
protect  against  rain  or  ground-moisture.     When  lying 
upon  one  on  damp  ground  a  man  is  spared  very  much 
risk,  but  he  will  not  be  protected  from  the  subjacent 
cold  by  the  water-proof  alone. 

253.  Men  should  be  encouraged  to  mend  their  own 
clothing,  independently   of  craftsmen.     A  little  sys- 
tematic   instruction  in  sewing  would  be  labor    well 
expended. 


36  tfOTES   OX   MILITARY    HYGIENE. 

254.  The  subject  of  clothes  deserves  careful  and 
constant  attention  by  officers  serving  with  troops. 
Administrative  officers  in  the  central  bureaux  must 
depend  in  great  part  upon  the  reports  of  company 
officers  as  to  the  results  reached  and  the  deficiencies 
to  be  corrected.  But  such  reports  should  be  made 
after  well-considered  study,  for  thoughtless  complaint 
and  immature  advice  are  worse  than  none. 


III. 

FOOD. 

255.  "  Force  manifested  in  the  living  body  must  be 
the  correlative   expression  of  force  previously  latent 
in  the  food  eaten  or  the  tissue  formed."     That  is,  a 
soldier's  food  must  be  adequate  to  repair  the  ordinary 
wear  and  tear  and,  if  unfortunately  he  is  yet  a  grow- 
ing lad,  to  supply  additional  tissue. 

256.  Food  supplies  energy  and  animal  heat,  partly 
directly  and  partly  by  replacing  expended  tissue. 

257.  There   are  five  general   classes  of  food,  viz.: 
The   albumiuates    (flesh)  ;  the    hydrocarbons  (fats); 
the  carbohydrates  (starch  and  sugar) ;  the  salts;  and 
water.     In   one   sense  the  air  also  may  be  called  a 
food.     These  are  combined  in  two  groups,  the  nitro- 
genous and  the  non-nitrogenous. 

258.  The  nitrogenous  substances  are  necessary  in 
the  manifestations  of  energy. 

259.  "  Every  structure  in  the  body  in  which  any 
form  of  energy  is   manifested,  as  heat,  mechanical 
motion,  chemical  or  electrical  action,  is  nitrogenous." 
(Parkes.) 

2 GO.  The  presence  of  nitrogen  controls  the  absorp- 
tion of  oxygen  from  the  atmosphere.  "  The  absorp- 
tion of  oxygen  does  not  determine  the  changes  in  the 
tissues,  but  the  changes  in  the  tissues  determine  the 
absorption  of  oxygen."  (Parkes.) 

261.  Life  is  really  a  form  of  motion ;  the  moment  a 
tissue  or  a  body  is  microscopically  at  rest,  it  is  dead. 

262.  The  albuminates,  or  albuminoids,  receive  their 

37 


38  NOTES   ON    MILITARY    HYGIENE. 

class  name  from  their  most  marked  ingredient— albu- 
men. Albumen  is  a  complex  substance,  chiefly  re- 
markable for  the  presence  of  nitrogen  (N)  and  of  a 
little  sulphur  (S).  Its  formula  is  021H7lSri5C53S. 

263.  The  albuminates  are  found   in  the  flesh  and 
blood  of  animals,  in  milk  as  casein,  in  seeds — espe- 
cially in  legumes,  and  in  a  certain  proportion  in  the 
gluten  of  wheat  and  in  other  cereals. 

264.  The  various  albuminates  are  not  identical,  but 
are  similar,  and  viewed  as  food  their  value  rests  upon 
their  contained  N". 

265.  The  starches  and  sugars  are  generally  grouped 
together  as  carbohydrates. 

266.  Starch,  C6H1005,  is  found  in  all  cereals,  espe- 
cially in  wheat,  oats,  maize,  barley,  and  rye;  in  the 
legumes  or  pulses;  in  rice,  buckwheat,  etc.;  in  the 
potato;  in  carrots,  parsnips,  and  turnips. 

267.  Under  the  action  of  saliva  in  the  process  of 
digestion,  and  by  the  aid  of  cookery  ^  starch  is  con- 
verted into  dextrine  of  identical  chemical  composition 
and  into  grape-sugar  or  glucose,  C6H1206H20. 

268.  Cane-sugar,  C12H12On ,  is  also  converted  into 
grape-sugar  early  in  the  process  of  digestion,  and  in 
the  liver  it  is  transformed  into   glycogen  or  animal 
starch,  C5H1006 .     This  is  stored  up  in  the*  body,  to 
be  called  on  as  needed. 

269.  The  surplusage  of  grape-sugar  goes  to  make 
fat,  and  that  sweets  are  fattening  is  notorious. 

270.  The   hydrocarbons,  generally  known  as   the 
fats,  contain  much  more   H  and  C  and  much  less  0 
than  the  carbohydrates.     The  formula  is  C10H]80. 

271.  The  physiology  of  fat  and  of  its  digestion  is 
yet  very  obscure,  and  only  the  rudiments  of  the  cur- 
rent belief  about  it  follow. 


FOOD.  39 

272.  The  hydrocarbons  art*  derived  from  the  fats 
and  oils  of  commerce,  but  as  stored  iu  the  body  the 
fat  is  cliiefly  derived  from  the  carbohyd rates.    There 
is  no  present  proof  that  fat  is  stored  in  the    bnd\  ;t 
fat 

'!}'•}.  Fat  taken  as  food  is  broken  up  in  line  parti- 
cles in  the  intestines  and  there  absorbed.  It  is  be- 
lieved that  part  of  it  is  taken  up  in  the  tissues  and 
the  rest  is  burnt  as  fuel.  Fat  Beeinfl  c-ential 
growth,  and  hence  especially  ii'-c^ary  to  growing 
youth. 

274.  Fat  as  fat  is  generally  objectionable  to  the 
stomach  in  health,  and  its  grosser  forms  are  apt  to 
disgust  the  appetite.  But  the  wise  instincts  of  nature 
allow  much  more  of  the  animal  fats  to  be  eaten  in 
eold  than  in  warm  climates. 

*M.">.  But  in  the  warmer  latitudes  the  vegetable 
oils  are  freely  consumed. 

27G.  The  main  point  to  be  remembered  is  that 
both  carbohydrates  (sugars  and  starches)  and  hydro- 
carbons (fats  and  oils)  are  necessary  parts  of  human 
diet. 

277.  The  inorganic  salts  are  chiefly  chlorides  and 
phosphates,   compounds  of   calcium,  potassium,  and 
sodium,  not  great   in   amount,  but   important,  and 
generally  supplied  in  composition  witn  the  ordinary 
alimentary  substances. 

278.  The  value  of  common  salt  (NaCl)  is  notori- 
ous.    It  is  found  in   every  tissue  except  the  enamel 
of  the  teeth,  it  assists  digestion,  and  in  part  regulates 
the  passage  of  fluids  through  the  denser  tissues. 

279.  Lime  helps  to  make  bone,  and  potassium  to 
make  blood  and  muscle. 

280.  The   vegetable  salts,    the    lactates,    tartrates, 


40  NOTES   ON  MILITARY   HYGIENE. 

citrates,  and  acetates,  become  carbonates  in  the  blood. 
These  are  peculiarly  important,  because  scurvy  ap- 
pears in  their  absence. 

281.  The  acids  from  which  these  salts  are  derived 
exist   chiefly   in   fresh   vegetables.     Their    nutritive 
value  is  small,  but  it  is  a  well-known  principle  of 
dietetics  that  they  must  be  supplied. 

282.  Water  is  not  strictly  a  food,  inasmuch  as  "  it 
undergoes  no  change,  no  chemical  alteration,  in  the 
body,  and  hence  is  not  susceptible  of  liberating  force. 
But  it  contributes   to  chemical  change   by  supplying 
a  necessary   condition   for    its    occurrence  in    other 
bodies." 

283.  Water  makes  the  solution  of  the  food  neces- 
sary for  digestion;  the  tissues  are  bathed  in  fluid,  and 
our  secretions  and  excretions  in  great  part  escape  in 
water. 

It  carries  the  solid  infinitesimal  tissue-making  par- 
ticles all  through  the  body,  and  bears  away  excremen- 
titious  matter. 

284.  A  man  dies  of  thirst  sooner  than  of  hunger, 
and  the  wounded  require  water  to  supply  an  essential 
element  in  the  escaping  blood. 

285.  Water  also  has  a  peculiar  hygienic  value  as 
one  of  the  mo^t  common  avenues  for  the  introduction 
of  serious  disease. 

286.  The  practical  point  to  determine  is  what  food 
is  necessary  for  the  repair  of  waste  in  soldiers,  and 
how  it  is  to  be  supplied. 

287.  The  salts,  being  generally  found  in  sufficient 
quantities   in   ordinary  alimentary  substances,   need 
not  be  considered. 

288.  On  the  fundamental  principle  that  it  is  the 
province  of  food  to  supply  energy  and  animal  heat, 


FOOT).  11 

the  general  proposition  is  that  (•  and  N  represent  the 
required  materials,  and  that  man  needs  about  fifteen 
times  as  much  C  as  N. 

289.  Practically    the   album i nates  are    the    chief 
sources  of  the  nitrogen,  and  tin '•fats,  starches,   and 
sugars  supply  the  carbon  ;  but  almost  every  food  con- 
tains both  elements. 

Thus,  starchy  food  does  not  contain  starch  alone, 
but  it  is  chiefly  starch. 

290.  The    problem   of  all  diets   is    to   secure  the 
proper  proportion  of  each  class  and  form  of  food  at 
a  practicable  cost,  and   to  utilize    it  without    undue 
strain  upon  the  animal  economy. 

291.  Confining  a  man  to  a  meat  diet  would  require 
him  to  tfteorb  four  times  as  much  nitrogen  as   R6068- 
sary  in  order  to  get  suHieient  carbon:  or  a  bread  diet 
would  overload   him  with  carbon  before  he  received 
enough  nitrogen. 

292.  To  supply  the  desirable  N  and  C  by  one  kind 
of  food  alone  would  require  Gl  Ibs.  of  flesh,  or  4J  Ibs. 
of  bread,  or  15  Ibs.  of  potatoes  a  day,  and  this  at  the 
risk  of  disease  from  the  surplus,  supposing  the  whole 
to  be  digested. 

293.  The  albumen  of  flesh  must  therefore  be  sup- 
plemented  by   fats,  starches,   sugars,   organic  acids, 
salts,  etc.,  and  bread  requires  flesh,  fat,  etc. 

294.  All  food  contains  water  in  mechanical  combi- 
nation, which  is  disregarded  in  calculating  the  nutri- 
tive value. 

Therefore  in  determining  the  amount  of  real  food, 
allowance  must  be  made  for  the  contained  water  as 
about  50  per  cent,  additional. 

295.  Parkes  makes  this  estimate  of  the  daily  water- 
free  food  necessary  for  a  soldier: 


42  NOTES   OK   MILITARY    HYGIENE. 

Ounces. 

Garrison.  Field. 

Albuminates  (flesh) 4.31  6-7 

Hydrocarbons  (fats) 3  53  3. 5-4.5 

Carbohydrates  (starches  and  sugars).  ...11  71  16-18 

Salts. 1.10  1.2-1.5 

» 

20.65          26.7-31 

For  other  tables  see  par.  471  et  seq. 

296.  Besides  the  solids,  from  3  to  5  pints  of  liquids 
are  taken  daily. 

297.  But  under  conditions  of  enforced  inactivity, 
and  especially  where  privation  compels,  life  may  be 
sustained  on  much  less  than  the  standard. 

Thus,  at  the  siege  of  Paris  inactive  persons  subsisted 
on  1  oz.  meat  and  10  oz.  bread  per  diem. 

298.  Col.  Perrin,  Medical  Department,  has   deter- 
mined  that,  making   every  possible   combination   of 
the  ration,  the  issue  is  lacking  in  some  particular  for 
garrison  use,  and  that  in  all  but  the  issue  of  salt  pork 
for  beef,  and  hard  bread  for  soft  bread,  it  was  below 
the  standard  for  the  field.     As  pork  is  frequently  un- 
available for  marching  troops,  the  ration,   however 
combined,  is  theoretically  insufficient. 

299.  Garrison  life  really  corresponds  with  the  "life 
of  activity"  of  the  physiologists,  and  the  best  combi- 
nation, viz.,  |  beef  and  J  bacon,  hard  bread,  beans 
and   coffee  =  25.82  oz.,  and  is  3.37  oz.  below  what  is 
required. 

300.  In  practice  the  deficiency  is  made  up  by  not 
using  all  the  bacon,  sugar,  coifee,  soap,  candles,  and 
vinegar,  and  with  the  savings  purchasing  flour  and 
other  articles;  by  adding  produce  from  the  gardens, 
occasionally  by  hunting,  fishing,  etc.,  and  by  contri- 
butions from  the  men. 

301.  Very  recently  (1889)  the  abolition  of  the  post 


FOOD.  43 

fund  has  made  it  possible  to  increase  the  bread  ration 
and  to  have  more  money  available  for  the  purchase  of 
extra  food,  to  the  greater  comfort  and  advantage  of 
the  men. 

302.  The  idea  that  the  ration  is  in  excess  receives 
color  from  the  excess  of  fats  ami  sails  in   the  bacon, 
and  from  the  possibility  of  the  sale  of  part  of  it  when 
all  bacon  is  issued. 

303.  Sugar  and  coffee  should  be  saved  only  when 
the  albuminates  are  so  low  as  to  require  their  trans- 
mutation into  nitrogenous  food. 

304.  The  consumption  of  the  regulation  ration  in 
garrison  is  so  variable  owing  to  barter,  sale  and  pur- 
chase, cultivation,  etc.,  that   it  is  useless  to   attempt 
to  judge  of  its  fitness  in  one  place  from  its  suitability 
to  another. 

305.  In  the  field,  where  it  is  most  important,  it  is 
least  elastic  and  no  back  rations  arc  issued. 

306.  Practically  the  question  is:     Are  t lie  bread  and 
the  meat  sufficient  ? 

307.  The  standard  bread  ration.is  18  oz.,  but  dur- 
ing a  part  of  the  Civil  War  it  was  increased  to  22  oz. 
soft  bread  or  flour,  and  to  100  rations  30  Ibs.  of  pota- 
toes, or  4.8  oz.  per  ration,  were  issued. 

308.  Some   years  ago  an   investigation   into   food 
actually  consumed    during  periods   of   ten   days    by 
eighteen  companies,   six   officers,   and   one   gang   of 
thirty-eight  quartermaster's  men,  all  in  the  Division 
of  the  Pacific,  gave  these  results : 

(1.)  There  was  a  marked  excess  in  the  amount  con- 
sumed over  that  supplied  by  the  Government. 

(2.)  The  average  excess  consumed  over  issues  by 
Subsistence  Department  plus  purchases  by  Company 


44  NOTES   OK   MILITARY    HYGIENE. 

Fund  was  12 \  oz.,  of  which  nearly  12  oz.  was  vegeta- 
bles. 

309.  One  company  at  Fort  Apache  consumed  about 

11  oz.  meat,  10£  vegetables,  25  bread. 
One  at  Fort  Mojave  10 1  meat,  11  vegetables, 

28  bread. 
One  at  Fort  Gaston  10  meat,  32  vegetables,  17 

bread. 
One  at  Fort  Halleck    14  meat,  36  vegetables, 

17  bread. 
Six    companies   at   Presidio,    San  Francisco, 

9  meat,  24  vegetables,  21  bread. 
38  Q.  M.  men  in  one  mess,  Presidio,  17  meat, 

24  vegetables,  17  bread. 

These  quantities  represent  what  was  actually  eaten, 
bones,  husks,  crusts,  etc.,  being  deducted  from  what 
was  placed  on  the  table. 

310.  Medical   officers   of   experience  have  advised 
that  an  adequate  ration  should  consist  as  follows,  in 
comparison  with  the  present  allowance : 

Proposed.  Now. 

oz.  oz. 

Fresh  beef  or  other  fresh  meat 20  20 

or  Salt  beef 20  22 

or  Pork  or  bacon 12  12 

Flour 22  18 

or  Soft  bread 22  18 

Except  on  fatigue,  when 

Flour  or  soft  bread 24 

or  Hard  bread , 16  16 

and  Flour 4.8  — 

or  Corn  meal 24  20 

Beans  or  pease 2.4  2.4 

or  Money  value  in  milk,  fresh  or  canned,  or 

cheese  if  possible. 

Potatoes  60  Ibs.  to  100  rations.. .  9.6  — 


Act  of  June  16,  1890,  adds  1  Ib.  vegetables 
to  the  ration.  G.  0.  78,  July  25,  1890,  issues  100  per 
cent,  fresh  potatoes,  or  80  per  cent,  fresh  potatoes  and 
20  per  cent,  fresh  onions,  or  70  per  cent,  f resli  potatoes 
and  30  per  cent,  canned  tomatoes  or  other  vegetables. 
No  savings  of  these  purchased  by  Subsistence  De- 
partment. 


FOOD.  45 

Proposed.     Now. 
oz.  oz. 

vr  Otherwise,  money  value  in  fresh  or  dried 
fruit, 

Rice '. 1.6          1.6 

or  Value  in  fresh  vegetables, 

Sugar 2.4          2.4 

Coffee,  green 1.6          1.6 

or      "        roasted 1.28        1.28 

orTea 24 

and  Candles,  soap,  pepper,  etc. 

311.  The  foregoing  table  gives  an  excess  of  1.865 
oz.  water-free  food  over  the  average  physiological  re- 
quirements, with  which  to  obtain  a  necessary  variety. 

312.  The  ration  of  beef  is  estimated  on  the  basis 
of  the  raw   issue.     There  is  a  waste  of  5  per  cent,  in 
cutting  up  the  carcass.     A  fair  proportion  of  bone  in 
beef  is  20  per  cent.     In  cooking,  meat  shrinks  about 
25  per  cent,  in  weight. 

313.  When  the  quality  of  beef  is  good,  the  issue  is 
sufficient. 

It  is  insufficient  when  taken  from  tough  Texas 
cattle,  or  w hen  issued  in  the  spring  from  frozen  car- 
casses slaughtered  in  the  autumn. 

In  cooking  frozen  meat  the  loss  is  believed  to  be 
10  per  cent,  more  than  with  fresh  meat. 

314.  The  proportion  of  fore-quarters  to  hind-quar- 
ters is  about  8  to  7. 

315.  Beef  for  issue  should  be  well  grown  and  nour- 
ished, and  cattle  are  best  about  4  years  old.     Steers 
should  weigh  about  1000  pounds. 

316.  The   weight   is   best   determined   by  putting 
average  samples  on  the  scales.     Sixty  per  cent,  of  the 
live  weight  is  the  average  net  weight. 


46  NOTES   ON    MILITARY    HYGIENE. 

317.  When   weighing   is    impracticable,    use    this 
formula: 

((72  X  .08)  X  L  X  42=  W  (net). 

C  =  girth  behind  shoulder-blades;  L  =  length  from 
front  of  shoulder-blades  to  root  of  tail;  42  Ibs.  = 
cubic  foot  of  flesh.  W  =  weight.  ( C  =  circ. ; 
.08  =  .07958;  <72  X  .08  =  contents.) 

Or,  C'2  X  5i-7-1.5  =W. 

If  fat,  divide  by  1.425;  if  lean,  by  1.575. 

318.  In  temperate  climates  beef  should  be  killed 
24-36  hours    before  issue.     In  hot    climates,    8-10 
hours. 

319.  Good  beef    should    have   about  20  per  cent, 
bone;  the  fat  should  be  firm  and  sufficient,  but  not 
in  excess;    and  the  flesh   firm,  elastic,  and   marbled 
from  little  veins  running  through  it. 

320.  From  good  meat  placed  on  a  white  plate  a 
little  reddish  fluid  will  be  found  to  exude.     This  is 
not  a  bad  indication,  as  it  is  sometimes   thought  to 
be. 

321.  The  flesh  of  young  animals  is  pale  arid  moist, 
and  that  of  old  animals  is  dark. 

A  deep  purple  indicates  that  the  animal  has  died 
with  the  blood  in  it. 

Blood  is  objectionable,  not  because  it  is  unhealthy 
in  itself  but  because  it  decomposes  very  rapidly. 

322.  None  of  the  meat  should  be  livid,  and  the  in- 
terior should  be  the  same  color  or  a  little  paler  than 
the  surface. 

There  should  be  no  softening  nor  fluid  within  the 
tissues.  In  commencing  putrefaction  the  color  is 
first  paler  and  later  greenish,  and  the  odor  disagree- 
able. 


FOOD.  47 

To  COOK  MEAT. 
Bailing. 

323.  For  boiling,  the  pieces  (of  any  meat)  should 
be  as  large  as  possible1,  and  be  plunged  into  boiling 
water  to  coagulate  the  albumen  in  the  exterior  layer, 
and  thus  retain  the  inner  jui< 

;>\!4.  After  5  or  10  minutes  the  water  should  be 
reduced  to  160°  F.  Above  170°  the  meat  becomes 
hard  and  indigestible.  Albumen  becomes  stringy  at 
134°an<l  coagulates  at  160°,  but  of  course  the  interior 
of  a  large  piece  of  meat  is  cooler  than  the  surface  or 
than  the  water. 

:')•.'.">.  Soldier  cooks  generally  use  excessive  heat,  and 
company  inspecting  officers  should  check  them  with 
the  assistance  of  the  kitchen  thermometer. 

326.  Meat  is  more  effectually  cooked  at  this  lower 
temperature  than  by  boiling. 

))•»;.  Simmering  and  boiling  are  the  same.  The 
water  should  not  simmer,  but  remain  at  1GO°-170°  F. 
fifteen  minutes  for  each  pound  of  meat.  Hence  so- 
called  boiled  meat  is  not  boiled — or  should  not  be. 

328.  That  actual  boiling  is  not  necessary,  is  illus- 
trated by  the  fact  that  meat  "  boiled  "  at  Fort  Lewis 
or  at  Denver,  und  that   at  the  seaside,  are  practically 
the  same,  although  at  the  higher  elevation  the  boiling 
temperature  is  lower. 

AVater  boils  at  j  Jl  Jy  J  less  for  j  ^J  i  ft.  of  ele- 
vation owing  to  diminished  pressure. 

Roasting,  Baking,  Frying,  and  Stewing. 

329.  The  so-called  roasting   is   baking;  but   meat 
may  be  roasted  by  cutting  it  into  pieces,  1-2  in.  sq., 


48  NOTES    OK    MILITA11Y    HYGIENE. 

and  holding  it  for  a  few  minutes   before  a  hot  fire,  as 
in  the  field. 

330.  In  baking,  first  apply  an  intense  heat  to  co- 
agulate the  outer  albumen  and  then  reduce  the  tem- 
perature. 

331.  To  fry,  is  to  boil  in  fat,  which  would  be  ex- 
cellent, but  is  never  done. 

332.  Slowly  heated,  fat  evolves  fatty  acids,  gener- 
ally  injurious,    penetrating   the   particles  of   frying 
food  and  enveloping  them  in  grease. 

The  gastric  juice  cannot  dissolve  this  and  it  is  an 
irritant  in  the  stomach. 

333.  To  fry  properly  the  fat  should  appear  to  boil. 
The  temperature  known  as  "  boiling  hot"  is  shown  by 
little  jets  of  smoke,  not  steam,  from  the  surface. 

Fat  cannot  boil  under  ordinary  atmospheric  pres- 
sure, although  a  fatty  acid  of  butter,  butyric,  may  do 
so.  The  appearance  of  boiling,  the  sputtering,  is  due 
to  water  in  the  lard. 

334.  Food  cooked  in  fat  should  be  drained  for  a 
a  few  minutes  in  a  seive. 

335.  To  stew  meat,  small  pieces  should  be  kept  for 
about  two  hours  at  a  moderate  heat  .(134°  +  F.)  in  a 
little  water. 

The  object  is  to  partly  extract  the  juices,  keeping 
the  albumen  semi-fluid  and  retaining  all  the  surround- 
ing liquid. 

336.  That  very  high  temperatures  are  unnecessary 
in  cooking  meat,  the  Norwegian  stove  (as  modified, 
Warren's  cooker,)  shows: 

In  its  simplest  form  this  is  a  wooden  box  thickly 
lined  with  felt.  In  the  middle  is  a  stew-pan  with  a 
felt  lid.  The  contents  are  heated  as  desired,  the 
pan  is  placed  in  the  box  which  is  covered,  and  left  to 


FOOD.  49 

itself.     In  a  few  hours  the  work  is  done  without  the 
need  of  more  fire. 

337.  The  chemist's  water-bath,  of  which  a  glue-pot 
is   the  type,   is  an  excellent  cooking  apparatus  and 
might  well  be  used  in  all  garrison  kitchens. 

.  Soup-making. 

338.  To  make  soup,  put  uncooked  meat  into  cold 
water,  (1  Ib.  lean  meat  to   1  qt.  water,)  heat  gradu- 
ally and  cook  slowly.     Kapid  boiling  drives  off  the 
aroma  and  probably  part  of  the  nutritious  matter. 

Cracked  bones  by  their  dissolving  marrow  add  to 
its  strength;  cooked  meat  may  be  added  to  soup 
three-quarters  of  an  hour  after  putting  on  the  fire. 
Vegetables,  except  potatoes,  one  hour  and  a  half  be- 
fore it  is  done;  potatoes,  30  minutes.  The  more 
fragments  of  cooked  or  uncooked  meat  and  bioken 
bones  the  better. 

:>:>!).  A  scrupulously  clean  pot,  slow  cooking  and 
constant  skimming  are  the  essentials  of  soup-making. 

Salt  Beef. 

340.  The  ration  of  salt  beef  is  22  ounces. 

The  nutritive  value  of  salt  beef  may  be  reckoned  at 
two-thirds  that  of  fresh,  decreasing  by  age. 

341.  Meat  is  salted  to  preserve  it,  but  this  is  at  the 
expense  of  some  nutritive  matters  that  pass  into  the 
brine. 

342.  From   brine   in  which   beef  has  been  salted, 
about  half  a  pound  of  flesh  extract  to  the  gallon  may 
be  taken   by  dialysis.     But  brine  several  times  used 
becomes  poisonous,  by  the  decomposition  of  the  con- 
tained animal  substances. 


50  NOTES   ON   MILITAliY    HYGIENE. 

Fresh  PorJc. 

343.  Fresh   pork,,  never  issued,    is  sometimes  ob- 
tained through  the  company  fund  or  otherwise.    This 
and  veal  are  liable  to  cause  diarrhoea,,  especially  in 
those  not  accustomed  to  them. 

Both,  and  especially  pork,  should  be  well  cooked. 

Salt  Pork. 

344.  Salt  pork  contains  much  more  N  and  C  than 
fresh  pork  and  is  issued  at  12  ounces  to  the  ration. 

345.  Salt  pork  and  salt  beef  are  carried  with  diffi- 
culty in  the  field,  and  are  not  very  acceptable.    When 
cooked    hard  and  dry  they   are  tough   and  insipid. 
Much  nutritive  principle  passes  into  the  brine,  leaving 
only  a  fictitious  nitrogenous  value  to  the  solids. 

Bacon. 

346.  Bacon,  containing  much  more  N  and  C  than 
fresh  pork,  is  issued  at  12  ounces  to  the  ration. 

347.  Bacon  is  the  exception  to  the  rule  that  cured 
meats  are  less  digestible  than  fresh.     Its  fat  is  more 
acceptable  than  pork,  it  is  easily  transported  and  is 
well  suited  to  the  wants  of  severe  exercise. 

348.  But  bacon  is  not  acceptable  to  those  not  in 
rude  physical   health,  and  to  most  men  in  hot  cli- 
mates, except  as  an  occasional  diet;  and  sometimes  it 
wastes  as  much  as  20-25  per  cent,  under  natural  heat. 
Bacon  slop-fed  and  summer-cured  wastes  much  more 
rapidly  than  that  corn-fed  and  winter-cured. 

349.  Notwithstanding  its  waste  under  heat,  prop- 
erly selected  bacon  should  generally  be  substituted 
for  salt  pork  at  southern  posts.     It  should  be  stored 
in  bins  with  bulk  salt  in  alternate  layers. 

350.  Bacon  with  very  deep  layers  of  fat  and  thin 


FOOD.  51 

layers  of  lean  should  only  bo  issued  at  northern  sta- 
tions, for  it  can  neither  be  cooked  properly  in  the 
field  nor  eaten  with  satisfaction  at  the  south.  The 
weight  of  the  sides  determines  the  proportion  of 
fat.  Sides  weighing  from  25  to  50  Ibs.  are  prefer- 
able. 

351.  When  the  fat  of  bacon  is  yellow  and  the  taste 
is  strong,  the  meat  is  rusty  or  tainted ;  when  the  lean 
has  brown  or  black  spots,  it  is  not  good. 

Bacon  from  stag  hogs  or  those  fed  on  mast  may  be 
yellowish  and  still  be  good. 

Corned  Beef. 

352.  Cooked  corned  beef  in  cans  at  12  oz.  is  a  sub- 
stitutive  part  of  the  ration  where  cooking  is  imprac- 
ticable. 

It  has  double  the  nutritive  quality  of  the  same 
quantity  of  uncooked  heel',  and  will  probably  play  an 
important  part  in  future  wars. 

353.  It  contains  60  per  cent,  solids,  "of  which  40  are 
albuminoids,  15  fat  and  5  salts.     Nitrogen  is  G  per 
cent,  of  the  whole. 

354.  Corning  is  treating  raw  beef  to  a  pickle,  for 
which  this  is  a  good  formula: 

To '50  Ibs.  beef  take  2  gals,  water,  4  Ibs.  salt,  1£  Ibs. 
brown  sugar,  1-J-  oz.  salt-petre,  J  oz.  saleratus.  Boil, 
skim  and  cool  gradually.  When  cold  put  the  beef  in 
the  brine  under  a  weight.  It  may  be  used  in  8  or  10 
days.  This  is  to  be  boiled. 

After  the  brine  has  been  used  four  times  it  must 
be  boiled  and  skimmed.  This  may  be  repeated  three 
times. 

Diseased  Meat. 

355.  "  Bad,"  that  is  decomposing,  meat  should  not 


52  NOTES   ON    MILITARY    HYGIENE. 

be  eaten;  but  meat  from  animals  suffering  under 
severe  and  mortal  diseases  may  be  consumed  without 
harm.  While  such  food  ordinarily  should  be  con- 
demned, in  severe  straits  it  is  better  to  issue  it 
than  to  allow  troops  to  starve. 

356.  Animals   ill   and  dead   of   the   cattle  plague 
(rinderpest)  and  of  epidemic  pleuro-pneumonia  have 
been  eaten  repeatedly  without  harm,  and  as  late  as 
1871   horses  dead   of  glanders  and   farcy  were   con- 
sumed in  large  numbers  at  the  seige  of  Paris. 

357.  But   it  is  essential  that  such  meat  be  thor- 
oughly  cooked,  and   it   is  much  safer   that   all  the 
blood  be  carefully  drained  and  not  used. 

358.  But  tuberculous   (consumptive)  meat  may  in- 
fect the  consumer,  and  milk  from  such  cows  is  dan- 
gerous. 

359.  Ordinarily,  animals   affected    with   malignant 
pustule  should  be  burned,  not  buried. 

360.  But  while   all  diseased  animals  are  not  neces- 
sarily to   be  condemned  as  food,  persons  have  been 
poisoned  by  the  stronger  medicines  with  which  they 
have  been  treated. 

361.  Besides   consumption,   beef   and   pork  when 
imperfectly  cooked  may  communicate  tape- worm,  and 
pork  the  trichina  to  man. 

362.  The  measle  of  the  hog  and  of  the  ox  is  a  worm 
that  when  swallowed  generates  tape- worm  in  man. 

363.  The  measle  (cysticercus-ci)   is  a  small  round 
body  observable  with  the  naked  eye,  and  when  nu- 
merous the  flesh  crackles  on  cutting. 

To  speak  of  old  and  rusty  pork  as  "measly"  is  in- 
correct. 

364.  Trichina  spiralis  when  swallowed  by  man  re- 
sults in  a  highly  painful  and  dangerous  disease. 


FOOD.  53 

365.  All    doubtful    meat    should    be    thoroughly 
cooked, 

Trichinae  are  killed  when  albumen  is  coagulated 
(160°  +  F.).  But  if  the  interior  of  boiled  or  roasted 
pork  shows  the  color  of  uncooked  meat,  this  has  not 
been  attained.  Trichinae  are  also  killed  by  hot,  not 
common  smoking. 

366.  Sausages  and    pies    from     meat    apparently 
wholesome  become  poisonous  by  the  formation  of  a 
yet  unknown  substance.     Age  is  presumed  to  be  one 
of  the  factors. 

367.  In  warm  weather,  hash,  prepared  the  night  be- 
fore it  is  to  be  eaten,  and  stale  mixed  dishes  are  liable 
to  induce  colic  and  diarrhoea. 

368.  Meat  may  be  preserved  for  some  time  by  heat- 
ing very  strongly  the   outside,  thus  coa<rnla ting   the 
albumen  in  the  outer  layers  and  hermetically  sealing 
the  interior. 

369.  The   application  of  charcoal  or  sugar  to  the 
surface  is  preservative,  and  gunpowder  rubbed  into 
the  surface  would  probably  have  a  similar  effect. 

370.  In  cooking  vegetables  there  is  a  shrinkage  of 
about  10  per  cent.,  exclusive  of  waste. 

Bread. 

371.  Bread,  the  other  important  part  of  the  ration 
with  meat, — for  practically  bread  and  meat  make  up 
its  value, — is  the  only  portion  of  it  in  which  there  is 
no  waste. 

372.  Bread  is  not  a  complete  diet,  being  deficient 
in  fat  and  moderately  in  N;  hence  butter  or  other 
greasy  food  is  eaten  with  it  by  instinct.     But  it  is  one 
of  the  few  foods  that  never  pall  upon  the  appetite. 

373.  In  making  bread  there  is  a  gain  in  weight  of 


54  KOTES   OK    MILITAEY   HYGIEHE. 

about  one- third  over  the  flour  actually  used.  For- 
merly this  difference  between  an  18-oz.  ration  of 
flour  and  an  18-oz.  ration  of  bread  was  practically 
lost  to  the  soldier  as  food,  the  difficulties  in  the  way 
of  increasing  the  bread  ration  being  insurmountable 
except  under  peculiar  circumstances. 

374.  But  under  very  recent  regulations  the  bread 
ration  may  be  increased  to  the  limit  of  the  flour  ra- 
tion, by  the  concurrent  action  of  the  council  of  ad- 
ministration and  the  commanding  officer. 

375.  The  weight  of  the  bread  ration  is  to  be  taken 
cold,  bread  losing  weight  after  baking. 

376.  Dough  is  flour  mixed  with  salt  and  water. 
Bread  is  dough  distended  through  its  particles  with 

C02  and  cooked. 

377.  Flour  is  the  crushed  kernel  of  wheat  with  the 
two  outer  husks  removed. 

378.  Flour  contains  9-14  per  cent.  N,  chiefly  in  the 
gluten,  and  60-70  parts  carbonaceous  matter  (starch, 
dextrine,  sugar). 

379.  The  husks  or  bran  contain  about  15  per  cent. 
N,  3.5  fat  and  5.7  salts.     Although  theoretically  nu- 
tritious,  it  is   not   so  practically  from  its  indigesti- 
bility. 

"  Whole  flour"  is  of  doubtful  utility,  because  of  the 
mechanical  irritation  of  the  bran. 

380.  "  High  patent"  flour  is  classed  as  the  finest, 
but  moderately  dressed  or  "  straight"  flour  is  the  best 
for  issue. 

381.  "  Straight"  flour  is  the  whole  product  of  the 
wheat  less  the  refuse,  with  a  small  percentage  of  low 
grades.     A   bushel   of  wheat  (60   Ibs.)  should  yield 
about  44  IbB.  of  this  flour. 

382.  "Family"   flour  is  generally  a  high   patent, 


FOOD.  55 

sharp  and   well  milled  from  selected  wheat,  and   thw 
of  higher  price. 

;;s:>.  Flour  is  listed  by  touch,  color,  taste,  odor, 
and  strength  or  elasticity. 

384.   Formerly  absolute  smoothness  and  whit- 
were  signs  of  the  best  quality;  but  the  roller  pi 
by  wliicli  most  flour  is   now  made  does   not  yield  an 
impalpable,  powder  but  one    slightly  rough,  and   the 
dark  color  of  the  hard  winter  wheat  (•*  Russian"  and 
"Turkey")  gives  that.  Hour  a  marked  yellow  tinge. 

oS.~).  Nevertheless  decided   grittiness  or   < 
yellowness      indicates,    as      formerly,      commencing 
change. 

38G.  Whatever  the  standard.  Hour  must  be  uniform 
in  color.  Specks  show  imperfect  milling  or  very  low 
grade. 

387.  Dry  roller  process  flour  is  not  as  adhesive  as 
buhr-stone  flour. 

388.  Good  flour  is  slightly  acid  to  test  paper,  but 
not  to  the  taste.  Recognizable  acidity  indicates  change. 
Acid  flour  makes  sour  bread. 

389.  A   disagreeable  taste,  or  musty  or  sour  odors, 
indicate  bad  flour. 

390.  Boiling  water  poured  on  a  handful  of  flour 
should  evolve   no   odor   other   than  that  of   freshly- 
ground  wheat. 

391.  The  relative   strength   and  elasticity   of   the 
gluten  make  a  standard  for  comparison  between  dif- 
ferent qualities  of  flour  by  the  dough  test. 

392.  Dough  Test.     Mix  carefully  flour  2  oz.,  water 
1  oz. ;  when  the  flour  is  all  incorporated,  shape  the 
mass  into   a  cylinder  If    inches  in   diameter   by  2| 
inches  high,  standing  on  its  base;  after  30  minutes  it 
is  evidence  of  strength  if  it  has  stood  up  well  with  a 


56  NOTES   ON   MILITARY   HYGIENE. 

hardened  dry  surface;  if  it  falls,,  flattens,  or  runs  over 
the  plate,  it  is  a  sign  of  weakness,  of  inferior  milling, 
or  of  poor  stock.  Knead  it  again  carefully,  flatten 
it  and  pull  it  out  gently,  not  suddenly,  for  about  5 
inches;  should  it  rebound  quickly,  it  is  evidence  of 
strength  and  superior  gluten.  Again  knead  it  gently, 
flatten  it  out  uniformly  to  the  size  of  a  plate,  gently 
and  gradually  pull  it  at  the  edges  until  it  is  very  thin, 
•like  distended  rubber;  if  this  can  be  done  without 
tearing,  it  shows  strength  and  superior  gluten. 

393.  Failure  of  the  dough  test  shows  weak  flour 
from  poor  wheat,  sprouted,  damaged,  or  old,  or  im- 
perfect milling  and  defective  gluten. 

394.  Flour  absorbs  odors  readily,  hence  it  should 
never  be  stored  near  vegetables,  fruits,  spices,  tobacco, 
turpentine,  coal  oil,  etc. 

395.  Flour  sacks  should  be  piled  about  nine  high, 
with  the  tiers  six  inches  apart,  in  a  dry  room. 

396.  In  making  bread,  the  temperature  to  which 
the  dough  is  raised  coagulates  the  albumen  and  trans- 
forms part  of  the  starch  into  dextrine,  and  a  certain 
amount  of  sugar  and  CX02  are  formed. 

397.  Bread  may  be  made  in  three  ways : 

(1.)  By  generating  C02  by  yeast  or  other  ferment 
added  to  dough; 

(2.)  By  mixing  sodium  or  ammonium  carbonate 
with  the  dough  and  adding  hydrochloric,  tartaric, 
phosphoric,  or  citric  acids  (baking  powders) ; 

(3.)  By  forcing  C02  through  the  dough  (aerated 
bread). 

The  third  is  probably  the  best  method,  because  the 
conversion  of  starch  into  dextrine,  sugar  and  lactic 
acid  is  limited,  but  it  requires  special  apparatus. 

398.  A  good  baking  powder  is:  Tartaric  acid,  2  oz.; 


FOOD.  57 

bicarbonate  of  soda  and  arrowroot  each  3  oz. ;  all  well 
mixed  and  kept  perfectly  dry  in  a  wide-mouthed  bot- 
tle. (Yeo.) 

399.  The  first  is  the  ordinary  garrison  method:   For 
20  Ibs.  flour,  take  8-12  Ibs.  tepid  water,  4  oz.  yeast, 
with  a  little  potato  and  1^-2  oz.  salt. 

The  baker's  skill  checks  the  fermentation  at  the 
proper  point. 

400.  A  little  alum  is  empirically  added  in  making 
bread,  its  action  being  uncertain.     Some  suppose  it 
limits   excessive  changes,  others  that  it  aids  in  the 
formation  of  C0a. 

401.  Alum  whitens  bread  and  utilizes  some  flour 
that   otherwise   could    not   be   used.      In   the   small 
quantities  in  which  it  is  legitimately  used,  it  irf  harm- 
less.    Alum   in  excess,  as   in  some  baking  powders, 
delays  digestion. 

402.  Bread  is  heavy  from  bad  yeast  fermenting  too 
rapidly,  or  when  it  has  not  fermented  enough,   or 
when  too  much  or  too  little  heat  is  used. 

It  is  bitter  from  bitter  yeast. 

It  moulds  rapidly  from  an  excess  of  water. 

403.  If  acid  flour  must  be  used,  lime-water  (from  • 
quick-lime)  is  required. 

404.  Yeast  is  the  ordinary  ferment. 

405.  Leaven   is   ordinary  dough  kept   moderately 
warm  for  some  time,  of  which  a  lump  undergoing 
fermentation  is  kneaded  into  fresh  flour  and  water 
and  made  to  permeate  the  whole. 

406.  Occasionally  flour   is   found  that   is  poor  in 
quality.     Flour   from   sandy   soil   or   where   lime   is 
deficient  may  rise  well  enough,   but  becomes   heavy 
and  sour  as  it  cools.     The  same  condition  may  follow 


58  NOTES   ON   MILITARY   HYGIENE. 

the  use  of  yeast  from  too  old  stock.     Good  bread  may 
be  made  with  such  flour  by  using  lime-water. 

407.  To  prepare   this  lime-water,  keep  a  barrel  of 
water   in   the    bottom   of  which  is  2  in.  quick-lime. 
Stir  this  up  well  and  allow  it  to  settle  in  time  for 
each   batch,  and   keep   it  well  supplied  with  quick- 
lime so  that  it  may  be  active. 

408.  Bread  from  Arizona-grown  wheat  is  frequently 
complained    of  as   poor.     Possibly  this   device   may 
correct  it,   as  it  did  large   quantities  of  flour  in  the 
early  days  of  the  war. 

409.  For  an  army  operating  on  a  line  of  railroad,  a 
bakery  at  the  general  or  secondary  base  can  supply  it. 
In  camps  of  any  permanence,  iron  portable  ovens  will 
establish  temporary  bakeries.     For  marching  columns 
bakery  wagons  in  which  men  can  knead   the  dough, 
and  travelling  ovens  to  go  where  guns  can  pass,  are 
practicable. 

410.  For  brigades  or  less,  not  in  permanent  camps, 
the  baking,  as  the  cooking,  must  as  a  rule  be  done  by 
company. 

411.  The  more  common  methods  are:  Barrel  ovens, 
Dutch   ovens,  mess  pans,  frying-pans,    holes  in  the 
ground. 

412.  The  barrel  oven :  A  barrel  with  its  head  out  is 
laid  on  its  side  in  a  hollow,  it  is  covered  throughout 
with  wet  clay  6-8  in.  and  this  with  dry  earth  for  G 
in.,  leaving  a  3-in.  opening  at  the  top  of  the  further 
end  for  a  flue.     The  staves  are  burned  out,  and  for 
use  when  heated  the  front  and  flue  are  closed. 

413.  A  Dutch  oven  is  a  heavy  flat  iron  pot  with 
short  legs  and  top  fitting  with  a  flange.     It  is  heated 
by  coals  beneath  and  above.     It  is  economical  to  use 
a  trench  with  several.     This  is  well  adapted  for  com- 


FOOD.  59 

pany  cooking  when  fuel  and  transportation  are  abun- 
dant. 

414.  The  Buzzacott  field- oven,  recently  invented 
and  tested,   appears   well   adapted   for  baking  and 
company  cooking.      Its  capacity   is  greater   and   its 
weight  and  cost  are  less  than  the  Dutch  oven,  and  it 
can  be  carried  wherever  there  is  moderate  trans}). •na- 
tion. 

415.  To  bake  in  mess-pans.     Cut  off  1|  in.  of  the 
iron  rim,  leaving  a  rough  edge;  fill  a   perfect    pan 
two-thirds  with  dough  and  cover  with  a  cut  pan  in- 
verted;   place   these  in  a  hole    18-20   in.   deep   in 
which  a  fire  has  burned  .">-()  hours  and  from  which 
all   the   cinders   but  a  bed  •'-:>  in.    <k>ep    have  IHVII 
removed.     Cover  the  pans  with  hot  cinders  and  with 
earth  and  leave  them  5-6  hours.     The  rough  edges 
of  the  upper  pan  permit  the  escape  of  gases  and  the 
bread  will  not  rise  to  the  top. 

416.  To   use  a  frying-pan.     Grease   it   and   set  it 
over  embers  till  the  grease  melts;  put  in  dough  rolled 
i  in.  thick   and  set  on  the  fire;  shake  the  pan  to 
prevent  sticking;  when  the  lower  crust  forms,  remove 
the  bread  and  set  it  up  oil  edge  close  to  the  fire  and 
turn  it  occasionally.     One   man   with  six   pans  will 
bake  25  Ibs.  bread  in  less  than  an  hour. 

417.  To  bake  bread  in  a  hole.     The  simplest  baking 
is  to  fill  a  small  hole  in  the  ground  with  a  wood  fire ; 
when  thoroughly  burned,  to  place  on  a  stone  a  mix- 
ture of  flour,  salt  and  water,  cover  with  a  tin  plate 
and  surround  with  hot  ashes.     Regulate  the  heat,  for 
above  212°  will  toughen. 

418.  Bread  sour  from  an  excess  of  acid  if  cut  into 
thin  slices  and  toasted  will  be  edible  by  volatilization 
of  acid. 


60  HOTES   OK  MILITARY  HYGIEHE. 

Stale  loaves  soaked  in  water  and  heated  250-300° 
in  an  oven  become  fresh,  but  must  be  eaten  within 
24  hours. 

Stale  bread  cut  into  thick  slices  and  toasted  is 
thereby  freshened. 

419.  For  transportation   loaves  should   be  laid  on 
their  sides  or  ends,  not  on  their  bottoms. 

An  army  wagon  will  carry  1,400  18-oz.  rations  of 
bread,  and  with  side-boards  1,800. 

Hard  Bread. 

420.  Hard  bread  is  unfermented  dough  thoroughly 
baked,  not  burned.     Bulk  for  tulk  it  is  more  nutri- 
tious than  soft  bread  on  account  of  the  water  being 
driven  off,   but  men  do  not  thrive  on  it  as  a  con- 
tinuous diet. 

421.  Hard  bread  crumbles  out  of  the  original  pack- 
ages or  when  they  are  broken,  and  the  bulk  of  the 
ration  (16  oz.)  is  not  sufficient  to  satisfy  the  stomach, 
so  that  the  allowance  is  apt  to  be  eaten  in  advance 
on  the  march. 

Corn  Meal  and  Oatmeal. 

422.  Corn  meal  may  be  substituted  for  flour,  20  for 
18  oz.     It   contains  as  much  N  and   four  times  as 
much  fat,  6-7  per  cent.,  and  is  very  nutritious.     It 
should  be   freshly  ground  from  selected   corn,  kiln 
dried  and  well  bolted. 

It  does  not  keep  well  and,  especially  if  not  thor- 
oughly cooked,  cannot  be  forced  on  persons  unaccus- 
tomed to  its  use. 

423.  Oatmeal  carefully  cooked  is  very  nutritious, 
developing  ounce  for  ounce  130  foot-tons  of  potential 
energy  against  87.5  for  bread. 


FOOD.  6  1 

It  keeps  well,  is  easily  cooked,  ami  while  it  lacks 
adhesirenen  for  making  large  loaves,  small  flat  cakes 
c.i  11  be  preserved.  This  is  good  military  food. 

424.  Oatmeal  as  a  hot  or  cold  gruel  is  extensively 
ami  profitably  used  by  laborers  on  hard  work,  and  is 
recommended  as  an  extra  issue  for  meii  on  guard  at 
night  or  on  heavy  fatigue. 


425.  Cheese  is  nutritious  and  economical,  being 
rich  in  X  and  in  fat.  A  half  pound  contains  as 
much  N  as  one  pound  of  meat  and  a  third  of  a  pound 
contains  as  much  fat.  The  opinion  that  it  is  very 
indigestible  is  not  well  founded. 

420.  The  richer  cheeses  decompose  easily  and  all 
are  liable  to  do  so  in  hot  climates;  hence  it  is  not  well 
kept  in  store. 

427.  Cheese   was  formerly  but  is  no  longer  issued 
to   travelling  troops,    25   Ibs.   to  100   rations.     It  is 
recommended  as  an   occasional   addition  to  the  mess 
table. 

428.  An  obscure   fermentative   change   sometiim  -s 
develops  an  active  gastro-intestinal  poison  (tyrotoxi- 
con)  in  cheese  that  appears  sound. 

Dried  Vegetables. 

429.  Beans  or  pease  (dried)  at  15  Ibs.  to  the   100 
rations  are  part  of  the  regular  issue. 

Beans  contains  several  times  as  much  N  as  bread, 
and  supplement  it  admirably.  But  they  are  indi- 
gestible unless  well  cooked,  and  should  be  soaked  in 
soft  water  about  12  hours  and  be  boiled  until  they  are 
tender,  which  will  require  two  or  three  hours  more. 


62  NOTES    ON    MILITARY    HYGIENE 

430.  Pease  are  chiefly  used  for  soup,  which  is  the 
only  state  in  which  men  like  them  as  a  rule. 

Their  richness  in  N  makes  both  valuable  substitutes 
for  meat. 

No  amount  of  boiling  will  soften  old  beans.  Such 
should  be  soaked  24  hours  and  then  be  crushed  and 
stewed. 

Hard  water  is  unsuitable  for  use  with  either  beans 
or  pease,  as  the  lime  salts  make  the  legumen  insoluble. 

431.  When  lime  water  must  be  used  for  cooking 
beans,  a  certain  amount  of  the  hardness  can  be  re- 
moved by  boiling,  when  part  of  the  lime  is  precipi- 
tated and  the  supernatant  water  if  carefully  poured 
off  can  be  used. 

Fresli   and   Canned    Vegetables. 

432.  Fresh  vegetables  are  always  desirable  for  va- 
riety, for  their  own  sake  as  food,  to  give  zest  to  the 
appetite,  and  probably  as  an  aid  to  digestion  and  to 
the  assimilation  of  other  food. 

They  have  special  value  as  antiscorbutics. 

433.  Mushrooms  are  an  agreeable  addition  to  the 
company  table,  and  when  grown  naturally  and  eaten 
fresh  are  nutritious.     The  spawn  is  easily  obtained 
and  they  are  readily  cultivated. 

A  mushroom  should  peel  easily,  be  a  clear  pink,  and 
have  a  curtain  attached  to  the  stalk. 

434.  The  tomato  is  a  better  antiscorbutic  than  the 
potato.     Its  acid  is  malic,  which  it  holds  free  at  a  little 
over  -f-Q  of  1  per  cent,  and  about  as  much  in  combina- 
tion with  bases. 

435.  The  tomato  is  excessively  watery,  some  speci- 
mens as  canned  containing  97.6  per  cent,  fluid,  but 
probably  this  could  be  reduced, 


FOOD.  <;:; 

Tanned  tomatoes  \viih  part  of  the  water  driven  oil' 
might  properly  he  supplied,  if  not  as  an  outright  issue 
at  least  at  a  very  low  price,  to  companies. 

Canned  Foods. 

}:>().  Canned  foods  sometimes  ferment,  and  the 
presence)  of  gas  which  requires  rejection  is  shown  l>y 
the  end  bulging. 

It  was  formerly  supposed  that  t  \v<>  scaling  holes  in 
the  end  of  the  can  indicated  that  the  gas  of  fermenta- 
tion had  been  allowed  to  escape  through  a  new  vent, 
which  afterward  was  sealed.  But  two  holes  are  not  a 
certain  sign  of  bad  goods,  because  some  companies 
habitually  make  use  of  two  in  their  original  packing. 

4'.\1.  First-class  canned  goods  have  on  the  la! -el 
both  the  name  of  the  factory  and  that  <»f  the  whole- 
sale house  through  which  they  are  sold.  Doubtful 
goods,  have  a  fictitious  factory  name  and  no  dealer's 
nfmie.  These  are  easily  avoided  in  peace,  hut  under  the 
pressure  of  war  supplies  deteriorate  and  must  be  criti- 
cally watched. 

Cheap  Food. 

438.  Occasionally  men  are  fed  through  the  com- 
pany fund  with  a  cheaper  grade  of  food,  but  as  a  rule 
(although  not  universally)  such  is  apt  to  be  defective. 
This  is  especially  true  of  molasses,  as  bought  outside. 
Speaking  generally,  it  is  not  economy  to  buy  food  cost- 
ing much  less  than  that  of  the  same  name  supplied 
by  the  Subsistence  Department. 

dunrt'iitnth'tl  Food. 

!).   Life  and   vigor    can  be   sustained  with  some 
loss  of  weight  for  a  few  days  on  less  than  the  standard 


64  NOTES   OK    MILITARY    HYGIENE. 

allowance  of  food,  when  that  is  put  in  a  concentrated 
form. 

The  minimum  amount  is  11  oz.  a  day,  and  the  max- 
imum time  is  one  week. 

440.  These  foods  develop  force  but  do  not  supply 
tissue  loss,  and  troops  operating  under  their  spur  must 
have  sleep  and  the  carbo-hydrates  afterward. 

The  German  pea  sausage  as  a  constant  diet  is  proba- 
bly over-rated.  It  consists  of  pea  flour,  fat  pork  and 
a  little  salt,  and  is  issued  cooked.  It  readily  makes 
soup. 

441.  Mixing  together,  cooking    and    baking  1    Ib. 
each  of  flour  and  meat,  J  Ib.  suet,  %  Ib.  potatoes,  with 
a  little  sugar,  onions,  salt,  pepper  and  spices — makes 
a  meat  biscuit  that  contains  about  10  per  cent,  water, 
and  keeps  unchanged  four  months.     (Parkes.) 

442.  The  extract  of  beef  might  make    an    emer- 
gency ration  for  special  occasions,  as  for  pickets  and 
forced  marches. 

It  would  be  particularly  useful  after  battle,  and  if 
each  man  could  be  induced  to  preserve  a  package  on 
his  person  it  would  be  of  great  service  to  the  wounded. 

It  is  a  heart  stimulant  and  removes  the  sense  of  fa- 
tigue, instead  of  acting  as  a  true  food. 

Horse  Flesh. 

443.  Horse  flesh  contains  more  IN"  and  less  C  and 
H  than  beef.     It  is  palatable  and  stimulating,  and 
harses   killed    in  action  or  not  required  in   a   siege 
should  be  utilized  in  emergency. 

Coffee  and  Tea. 

444.  Coffee  is  a  gentle  nervous  stimulant,  and  as 
made  in  garrison  insures  the  water  being  lolled.    (See 


FOOD.  65 

Water.)     It  is  useful  in  winter  by  the  warmth  it  sup- 
plies, and  in  summer  it  replaces  perspiration. 

Chiccory  and  coffee  "extracts"  are  harmless  adul- 
terations in  garrison. 

445.  In  the  field  only  coffee  itself,  which  probably 
retards   tissue   change  and    certainly  stimulates  the 
nervous  system  without  reaction,  should  be  relied  on. 

The  disadvantage  of  its  use  in  campaign,  wlu-n  it 
must  be  issued  ground  and  roasted,  is  its  liability  to 
accidental  loss  and  to  damage. 

446.  Tea  has  practically  the  same  physiological  Af- 
fect as  coffee.     The  advantage  of  tea  is  its  lightness 
and  small  bulk.     Its  weight  is  but  one-sixth  that   «>!' 
coffee.     A  water-proof  covering  is  necessary  for  its 
earria.ire,  and  the  most  convenient  method  is  in  a  small 
glass  vial. 

447.  The  men  generally  dislike  tea  because  of  its 
bitterness  when  drawn  too  long,  and  from  the  action 
of  iron  on  it.     The  vessels  for  making  tea  should  be 
scrupulously  clean,  with  no  exposed  iron. 

448.  Tea  is  best  made  by  pouring  boiling  water  on 
the  leaves  and  letting  it  "  draw,"  not  boil,  in  a  cov- 
ered vessel. 

Besides  having  the  sanitary  advantage  of  boiled 
water,  tea  destroys  many  offensive  qualities  of  water 
containing  suspended  and  dissolved  organic  matters. 

If  hard  water  must  be  used,  it  should  first  be  well 
boiled  with  a  little  carbonate  of  soda. 

Scurvy  and  Antiscorbutics. 

449.  Scurvy  is  influenced  by  mental  depression  and 
is  due  to  the  absence  of  the  salts  of  vegetable  acids  in 
the  food. 


66  NOTES   ON    MILITARY    HYGIENE. 

It  is  checked  by  cheerful  surroundings,  and  is  re- 
moved by  the  use  of  fresh  vegetables  or  their  salts. 

450.  The  better  antiscorbutics  are  lemon  and  lime 
juice;    raw  potato;    tomato;   onions;  cabbage  (fresh 
cabbage  is  better  than  saner-kraut);  vinegar;  yellow 
mustard;  lamb's  quarter;  cactus  stripped  by  fire  (the 
tall  varieties  contain  valuable  juice). 

451.  The  best  antiscorbutic  is  the  agave.     To  pre- 
pare it  cut  off  the  leaves  close  to  the  root,  cook  them 
well  in  hot  ashes,  express  the  juice  and  drink,  raw  or 
sweetened,  1-4  wineglassfuls  three  times  a  day.     The 
white  interior  of  the  leaves  may  be  eaten. 

452.  Eaw   potato   sliced    and    covered  in  alternate 
layers  with  molasses  is  a  good  antiscorbutic  that  keeps 
well. 

Food  and  Climate. 

453.  In  tropical  countries  carbo-hydrates  form  the 
staple;  in  temperate,  a    mixed  dietary  is    used;    in 
arctic,  fuel  foods,  the  hydrocarbons  or  fats. 

454.  The  ration  should  not   be  identical  over  the 
whole  of  so  large  a  country  as  this,  nor  should  it  be 
the  same   in   case  of   invasion   north   or   south,  but 
should  be  arranged  to  suit  the  climate  and  the  duty, 
even  if  at  some  increase  of  cost. 

Alcohol. 

455.  Alcohol,  formerly  part  of  the  ration  as  whis- 
key, often  suggested  for  use  under  exposure,  is  not 
desirable  in  health. 

456.  In  that  it  is  partly  oxidized  in  the  blood  and 
transformed   into  acetic   acid,  alkaline  acetates   and 
then  carbonates,  and  in  the  sense  of  retarding  tissue 
change,  it  may  be  regarded  as  a  food.     (Yeo.) 

457.  But   a  part   is  always   eliminated  unchanged 


FOOD.  G7 

through  the  kidneys  and  lungs,  und  in  excess  of  very 
small  amounts  it  is  invariably  hurtful. 

4.~>S.  One  ounce  of  brandy  or  whiskey  freely  diluted 
is  the  extreme  quantity  to  be  taken  at  one  time  with- 
out the  risk  of  depression,  and  twice  that  quantity  in 
twenty-four  hours  is  tin-  maximum  for  a  healthy 
man. 

459.  Its  primary  stimulating  effect  on  the  nervous 
and  circulatory  systems  is  temporary,  and  is  followed 
by  a  sedative,  and   finally  a  depressing  effect  on  the 
nerves. 

460.  The  subjective  feeling  of  warmth  is  due  to  the 
dilation  of  the  vessels  of  the  stomach  and  skin. 

461.  In  small  quantities  it  exercises  no  influence 
on  the  temperature  of  a  healthy  adult,  medium  quan- 
tities lower  the  temperature  a  little,  and  large  quanti- 
ties  produce   a   fall   of   several  degrees   for   several 
hours.      (Binz.) 

462.  Its   effect  on  the  bodily  temperature    is  one  ' 
cause  of  the  danger  of  its  use  in  severe  climates;  and 
the  experience  of  large  bodies  of  troops  under  all  con- 
ditions of  heat,  cold,  and   exposure  has  demonstrated 
their  greater   health   and  efficiency  when  no  spirits 
have  been  used. 

463.  Therefore  in   garrison,  or  with  working  par- 
ties, or  on  forced  marches,  to  say  nothing  of  battle, 
small  quantities  have  no   influence,  and  the  moment 
it  is  felt  it  is  hurtful. 

464.  Its  use  as  a  medicine  in  disease  is  entirely  dif- 
ferent  from   that  as  a  beverage  in  health,  and  is  a 
question  of  therapeutics,  not  of  hygiene. 

465.  Taken  habitually,  alcohol  leads  slowly  to  mor- 
bid changes  in   all  parts  of  the  body  which  become 
permanent,    and  its  daily  "  moderate"   use  is   more 


68  NOTES   ON   MILITARY   HYGIEKE. 

dangerous  physically  to  the  consumer  than  are  peri- 
odical debauches. 

466.  Even  in  moderate  quantities  alcohol  disturbs 
muscular  action,  alters  the  disposition,  and  deranges 
the  judgment;  but  the  effects  of  similar  quantities 
upon  different  persons  often  are  very  unlike. 

467.  Independently  of  the  disease  it  may  induce, 
the  untrustworthiness  of  the  intemperate,  the  serious 
consequences  of  their  action  and  their  inaction,  are 
sufficient  reasons  for  discouraging  the  use  of  alcohol 
in  military  life.     And  although  no  man  expects  to 
be  a  drunkard,  nor  becomes  one  at  a  single  step,  the 
entire   avoidance   of  spirits  is  always   safer,  and  to 
many  is  easier  than  a  moderate  use. 

468.  Beer  contains  about   3  per  cent.,  and  brandy 
and  whiskey  about  42  per  cent,  alcohol. 

The  inveterate  beer-drinker  is  alwa}Ts  a  nuisance, 
although  not  so  active  a  one  as  the  whiskey-drinker. 

469.  Binz,  of  Bonn,  probably  the  best  scientific  au- 
thority on  the  subject,  thus  sums  up  his  views:  "  The 
habit  of  taking  alcoholic  stimulants  apart  from  meals 
is  a  public  evil,  from  a  sanitary,  economic,  and  intel- 
lectual point  of  view." 

470.  What  is  thus  true  of  civil  life  is  doubly  so  of 
the  military  service,  where  clear  and  swift  judgment 
is  required  of   the  leaders,    and  prompt  co-ordinate 
action  of  the  subordinates. 

Tables  of  Food  Values. 

471.  These  tables  of  food  values   by  Prof.  W.  0. 
Atwater,  the  latest   determinations   on  the  subject, 
and  the  explanatory  remarks,  are  extracted  from  Bill- 
ings's  National  Medical  Dictionary  (1890). 

472.  The  potential  energy  of  food  represents  its 


FOOD.  69 

ability  to  furnish  heat  and  muscular  or  other  forms 
of  energy. 

473.  Potential  energy  is  estimated  in  calories. 

474.  A    calorie  is  the  heat  required  to  raise  one 
kilogram  of  water  1°C.  (or  one  pound  of  water  about 
4°  F.). 

475.  Afoot-ton  is  the  energy  (power)  to  lift  one 
ton  one  foot,  and  one  calorie  corresponds  to  1.53  foot- 
tons. 

476.  A  gram  of  albuminates  or  of  carbohydrates  is 
supposed  to  yield   4.1,  and  one  of  fats  9.3  calories; 
hence  weight  for  weight  when  diir« •-!<•;!  the  fats  liavc 
a  little  more  than  double  the  lull  value  of  the  otii«-rs. 


^^% 


I 

70  NOTES    OX    MILITARY    HYGIENE. 

477.     PERCENTAGE  OF  DIGESTIBILITY  OF 
NUTRIENTS. 


Food  Materials. 

Albuminates. 

Fats. 

Carbo- 
hydrates. 

Meats  and  Fish  

practically  all 

79-92 

EiTii'S     . 

96 

Milk  

88-100 

93-98 

? 

Butter  

98 

Oleomargarine  

96 

Wheat  bread  

81-100 

'? 

99 

Corn  ineal  

89 

? 

97 

Rice  

84 

? 

99 

Peas  

86 

? 

96 

Potatoes  

74 

? 

92 

Beets  

72 

? 

82 

Atwater,  Nat.  Med.  Diet. 


478.  STANDARDS  FOR  DAILY  ALLOWANCE  OF 
FOOD. 


Albumi- 
nates. 

• 

Fats. 

Carbo- 
hydrates. 

Total. 

Potential 
energy. 

Child  to  1|  years  — 
"      "  2-6  years... 
"  6-1  5  years.. 
Aged  man  

Grams. 
20-36 
36-70 

70-80 
100 

145 
156 

185 
125 
150 

Grams. 
30-45 
35-48 
37-50 
68 

100 
71 
71 
125 
150 

Grams. 
60-90 
100-250 
250-400 
350 

450 
568 
568 
450 
500 

Grams 
140 
295 
443 
518 

695 
795 

824 
700 
800 

Calories. 
765 
1420 
2040 
2475 

3370 
3630 
3750 
3520 
4060 

Man  at  hard   work, 
German..  
Active  laborer,  Eng- 
lish   

H  a  r  d-w  o  r  k  e  d  la- 
borer, English  
Man     at     moderate 
work,  American.  . 
Man   at  hard  work, 
American  

1  Ib,  avoir.  =  453.6  grams. 


1  oz.  =  28.3  grams. 
Atwater,  Nat.  Med.  Diet. 


POOD. 


71 


479.     NUTRIENTS  AND  POTENTIAL  ENERGY 
ACTUAL  DIETARIES. 


IN 


Albumi- 

i  lines. 

Fats. 

Carbo- 
hydrates. 

Total. 

Potential 
energy  of 
nutrients. 

Carpenter,  Munich.. 
lil.-icksinitli,      Eng- 
1  uid             

(Tram* 

131 

176 

Grains. 

68 
71 

<i'r//w.s-. 

494 
667 

693 
914 

Ciilnrifs-. 

111!)! 
4117 

German  peace  nil  ion 
(iernmn  war  ration.. 
German      extraordi- 
nary ration,  Fran- 
co-German war  ... 
KM  dory    operatives, 
mechanics,      etc., 
Mass   

114 
134 

157 
127 

39 
58 

285 

186 

480 

m 

331 
531 

681 
713 
844 

3093 
4652 
4428 

College    foot-ball 
lc;ini,  food  CM  ten.  . 
Machinist,  Boston.  .  . 
To:imsters  and  oilier 
hard  workers,  Bos- 
ton .        

181 

182 

254 

-jr.l 
363 

557 
617 

1030 
1059 

1443 

5742 

5638 

7804 

Brick-makers,  Mass. 
U.  S.  Army  ration  .  . 
U.S.  Navy  ration  .  . 

180 
120 
143 

860 

161 
184 

1160 

454 
520 

1695 
735 

847 

8848 
8851 
4998 

This  table  represents  what  is  eaten,  rather    than  what  is  absolutely 
necessary. 

Atwater,  Nat.  Med.  Diet. 


IV. 
HABITATIONS. 

Soil  and  Soil-air. 

480.  Soil,  hygienically,  is  that  portion  of  the  earth's 
crust  that  may  affect  the  health. 

It  consists  of  mineral,  vegetable,  and  sometimes 
animal  substances;  and  air  and  usually  water  are 
contained  in  its  interstices. 

481.  The  air  in  soil  is  generally  rich   in   carbon 
dioxide    (COJ,    and   may   be   charged    with   effluvia 
from  organic   decomposition.     As   much  as  2G.3  to 
54.5  volumes  C02  per  1,000  air  have  been  found  13 
feet  below  the  surface. 

482.  The  subsoil  air  is  always  in  motion,  laterally 
and  vertically. 

483.  The  movement  of  subsoil  air  is  due  to  changes 
of  temperature  in  the  soil  and  to  the  effect  of  rain, 
which  at  first  displaces  the  superficial  and  later  the 
deeper  air  by  changes  in  the  ground- water. 

The  direction  of  its  movement  depends  upon  the 
least  resistance. 

484.  The  artificial  warmth  of  a  house  draws  the 
soil-air  (ground-air)  to  its  site  and  into  it,  especially 
when  the  surface  is  frozen  or  closely  paved,  unless 
the  cellar  is  air-tight. 

[  485.  Hence,  air  from  cess-pools,  broken  drains  and 
buried  decomposing  matter  of  all  kinds  will  pass  into 
the  cellar  as  in  a  flue. 

I     48G.  Dug-outs  should  only  be  tolerated  in  whole- 
/  72 


HAIMTATI()NTS.  73 

some  soil,  and  all  permanent  habitations  should  be 
cemented  below  the  level  of  the  ground  or  be  built  on 
arches. 

Soil-moist urc  ami  <i  ruund-ivater. 

487.  Besides  air,  soils  contain  water,  divided  ini<» 
moisture  and  ground-water. 

488.  The  soil  is  moist  when  it  contains  air  as  well 
as  water. 

489.  Ground-water  fills  the  interstices,  so  that   ex- 
cept as  its  particles  are  separated   by  solid  portions  of 
soil  there  is  a  continuous  sheet  of  water. 

490.  Soil-moisture  is  derived  from  the  rainfall,  and 
its  amount  depends  upon   the  supply  and   upon   the 
power  of  the  soil  to  absorb  and  retain  it. 

491.  In  relation  to  moisture,  soils  are  divided    into 
permeable  and  impermeable;  the  former   b<ung   tin- 
weathered   granite,     trap    and     mctamorphic    rocks, 
dense  clay,  clay  slate,  hard  limestone,  etc. 

However,  the  driest  granite  and  marble  will  con- 
tain about  a  pint  of  water  in  each  cubic  yard. 

492.  The  permeable  soils   are   the   chalks,    sands, 
sandstones  and  vegetable  soils. 

493.  Average  sandstone  absorbs  about  25  per  cent., 
and  ordinary  vegetable  mould   from    GO   to   75    per 
cent,  of  rainfall. 

494.  Much  surface  moisture  is   derived  also  from 
the  rising  and  falling  ground- water,,  by  evaporation 
from  it  and  by  capillary  action. 

The   air   of   habitations  and  their  walls  are   thus 
directly  affected. 

495.  Ground-water    or    subsoil- water,   the    water- 
level  of  the  engineers,  is  a  subterranean  sheet  lying 
at  differed  depths  (from  two  or  three  to  hundreds  of 


74  KOTES   OK    MILITARY    HYGIENE. 

feet)  below  the  surface,  not  necessarily  horizontal,  in 
constant  motion,  generally  towards  the  nearest  water- 
course, with  changing  level  and  varying  flow,  and 
affected  by  such  obstacles  as  the  roots  of  trees,  deep 
wells  and  low  drains. 

496.  Soil-moisture,   the   superficial    dampness   im- 
mediately under  the  surface,  affects  health  by  aiding 
decomposition  of  contained  substances,  by  predispos- 
ing to  catarrhal,  rheumatic  and  neuralgic  affections, 
and  by  furthering  consumption. 

497.  Ground-water    by    its    influence    upon     soil- 
moisture  may  affect  the  health  of  animals  as  well  as 
of  men. 

In  two  stables  identical  except  the  distance  of  the 
ground-water  (in  one  2|  ft.,  in  the  other  5-6  ft.) 
from  the  surface,  horses  were  constantly  sick  in  the 
one  and"  not  in  the  other,  and  equal  health  was  at- 
tained by  draining  the  damper  soil. 

498.  Soil  is  dried:    (1)    By  deep  drainage,  (2)  by 
opening  the  outflow  or  diverting  the  inflow. 

499.  Very  deep  drainage  is  not  always  essential. 
Lowering  the  ground-water  as  little  as  two  feet  has 
been  known  to  make  unhealthy  sites  salubrious. 

500.  But  newly-established  posts,   on  all  but  the 
most  impermeable  soils,  should  be  underdrained  8-12 
ft.  deep  with  lines  10-20  ft.  apart. 

In  the  extreme  south  deep  underdraining  should 
be  carried  out,  even  in  apparently  sandy  soils. 

501.  Tiles  once  properly   laid   are   practically    in- 
destructible.    In   laying   drains   the   bed  should   be 
hollowed  in  undisturbed  soil  and  the  workmen  should 
never  stand  less  than  one  foot  from  the  bottom. 

502.  A  fall  of  1  ft.  in  100  is  sufficient,  and  with 
good  workmanship  6  in.  is  enough.  , 


II.MUTATIOXS.  ?5 

503.  With  a  grade  less  than  one  in  a  hundred,  or 
with    a    bad    foundation,    begin    at    the   upper   end. 
With  a  greater  grade  begin  at  the  outlet. 

Character  of  Soils. 

504.  Granite,  metamorphin  and  trap  rocks  arc  usu- 
ally dry  and  healthy  sites. 

\Vhen  weathered,  granite  is  said  to  collect  vegetal >le 
decay  and  to  absorb  moisture. 

505.  Clay  slates  arc  impermeable  and  healthy,  but 
drinking  water  is  scarce. 

50G.  Limestone  is  generally  dry  and  healthy,  but 
apt  to  be  cavernous  with  communicating  rifts  through 
which  contaminations  may  pass  to  the  drinking 
water. 

Magnesian  limestone  is  undesirable  as  a  site. 

507.  In  limestone  regions  the  water  is  hard,  clear 
and  sparkling. 

508.  In  limestone  ranges  marshes  at  great  eleva- 
tions are  not  uncommon. 

509.  Permeable  sandstones,  the  air  and  soil  being 
dry,  are  very  healthy;  but  shallow  sandstone  under- 
laid by  clay  may  be  damp. 

510.  Deep  gravels  are  always  healthy,  unless  lower 
than  the  general  surface. 

Gravel  hillocks  are  the  very  best  sites. 

511.  Pure  sand,  'deep  and  free  from  organic  matter, 
is  healthy. 

But  sands  lived  upon  soon  become  charged  with 
refuse,  which  passes  through  them  laterally  for  long 
distances. 

Some  sands  have  vegetable  debris  intermixed,  and 
others  have  water  within  a  few  feet  of  the  surface 
held  by  underlying  clay. 


7G  NOTES   OK   MILITARY   HYGIENE. 

512.  Clay  and  alluvial  soils  generally  are  suspicious. 
Water  is  retained  in  and  air  is  damp  over  clay. 

Vegetable  matter  and  impermeable  strata  are  liable 
to  be  intermixed  in  alluvials. 

513.  Well  cultivated  soils  are  generally  healthful, 
.rice  fields  being  the  exception. 

Kice  plantations  should  not  be  tolerated  near  mili- 
tary posts. 

514.  Made   soils,   especially   near    towns,   are   fre- 
quently impure   and   should   always  be  avoided  for 
camps  or  cantonments. 

Sites,  Independently  of  Soil. 

515.  Unhealthy   situations   independently  of   soils 
are:  Enclosed  valleys,  ravines  or  the  mouths  of  long 
ravines,    ill-drained    ground,    the    neighborhood    of 
marshes,  especially  if  the  wind  blows  from  them,  and 
the  northern  slope  of  mountains. 

516.  On  sanitary  grounds  an  enclosed  valley  is  ob- 
jectionable as  interfering  with  free  ventilation  on  a 
large  scale  and  as  tending  to  concentrate  and  retain 
drainage. 

517.  There  is  apt  to  be  a  current  of  air  in  one  di- 
rection or  the  other  during  the  day,  and  in  reverse  at 
night,  through  ravines.     The  out-current  where  vege- 
tation is  profuse  and  decaying  is  impure,  and  posts 
should  not  be  established  near  thefr  mouths. 

518.  No  site,   whatever   its   altitude,   unless   thor- 
oughly well  drained,  is  acceptable  if  dominated  by  sur- 
rounding heights. 

519.  Proximity  to  marshes,  especially  on  their  level, 
is  undesirable,  and  to  be  in  the  course  of  prevailing- 
winds  in  southern  latitudes  is  apt  to  be  disastrous. 

520.  In  the  warmer  latitudes,  if  military  posts  are 


HABITATIONS.  77 

required  near  streams  they  should  be  on  the  southern 
bank. 

521.  The  best  situation  for  a  post  is  a  divide  or 
saddle-back,  unless  it  is  too  enuch  exposed  or  without 
water. 

Nearly  as  good  a  site  is  near  the  top  of  a  slope,  and 
if  the  crest  protects  against  fierce  winds  it  is  better. 

When  there  is  a  choice,  the  southern  is  better  than 
the  northern  side  of  mountains  or  high  hills. 

Vegetation  near  Sites. 

522.  As  affecting  sites,  vegetation  is  classed  as  herb- 
age, brushwood  and  trees. 

523.  Herbage,    or    closely-lying    grass,    is    always 
healthy.     Bermuda  grass   is   well    adapted   to   hold 
shifting  southern  sands.     (Lupine,  a  shrub  about  two 
feet  high,  has  a  similar  use.) 

524.  Herbage    should     always     be    kept    closely 
trimmed  and  weeds  are  not  to  be  tolerated. 

525.  All  rank  vegetation  about  a  permanent  post 
should  be  cut  while  in  full  growth  and  be  promptly 
burned  before  decay. 

5~6.  But  it  is  better  not  to  move  such,  if  it  is  prim- 
itive, about  a  temporary  camp,  lest  the  disturbance  of 
the  soil  induce  malaria. 

527.  When  vegetation  is  removed,  it  should  be  in 
the  heat  of  the   day.      (This  applies  to  everything 
between  grass  and  trees.) 

528.  Heavy  brush  about  a  marsh  probably  impedes 
malaria  and  should  not  be  removed. 

529.  Vegetation    that    obstructs    the   sun's   rays 
renders  evaporation  from   the  ground  more  difficult, 
and  the  roots  of  trees  impede  the  passage  of  water 
through  the  soil. 


78  NOTES   ON    MILITARY    HYGIENE. 

530.  Forests  therefore  keep  the  ground  cold  and 
moist  in  cold  countries.      Their  removal  makes  the 
extremes  of  temperature  more  marked,  with  an  aver- 
age rise. 

531.  In  hot  countries  the  shade  of  vegetation  cools 
the  ground.    Evaporation  from  the  surface  is  lessened, 
but  that  from  the  vegetation  itself  perceptibly  lowers 
the  temperature. 

532.  Trees  and  tall  shrubs  check  the  velocity  of  the 
air,  and  belts  of  such  vegetation  serve  as  a   barrier 
against  malaria. 

533.  But  where  the  air  becomes  stagnant  by  such 
intercepting  growths  in  thick  clusters,  decaying  veg- 
etation may  produce  fatal  disease. 

534.  In  frostless  climates    the  eucalyptus  absorbs 
and   evaporates   eleven   times  the  rainfall,  and  thus 
drains  wet  ground  and  exhausts  the  poison   of  mala- 
rious localities. 

535.  The  common  sunflower  of  the  east  has  similar 
properties. 

536.  Trees  should  be  removed  only  with  judgment. 
In  cold  countries  they  break  cold  winds,  in  hot  coun- 
tries  they   cool   the   ground   and    they  may  protect 

j  against  malarial  currents. 

/      Where  they  cut  off  sunlight  and  air  from  a  domicile 
and  make  it  dark  and  damp,  they  are  doing  harm. 

537.  Some  officers  dread  camping  in  the  woods,  and 
always  select  an  open  field.     That  is  the  result  of  im- 
perfect knowledge.     The  character  of  the  forest  must 
be   considered.     The   Romans   habitually   encamped 
under  trees,  and  their  example  is  generally  good. 

538.  In  establishing  a  permanent  post   remove  no 
more  trees  than  absolutely  necessary,  until  time  shows 
which  can  be  spared. 


HABITATIONS.  3$ 

539.  Summary  as  to  permanent  sites:  Avoid  soil 
moisture,  ground-air  from  decomposing  organic  mat- 
ter, prevailing  winds  charged  with  malaria,  excessive 
elevation  and  unnecessary  exposure  to  extremes  of 
temperature. 

Drain  deeply,  except  through  impermeable  under- 
Iving  rock;  carry  off  storm  water;  clear  away  brush, 
except  about  marshes;  if  possible,  cultivate  grass  and 
keep  it  short  over  adjacent  ground;  preserve  trees,  to 
remove  with  judgment  later:  pave  under  houses,  and 
in  warm  elimat-s  rajse  on  piers;  and  preserve  the  .-oil 
from  pollution  by  removing  impurities. 

Jitt/Tttrkx  mill  ijmirters. 

540.  Barracks,  particularly  if  standing  below  higher 
ground,  should  be  protected  from  water  by  trenches 
deeper  than   the   foundation   wall,  filled    with   loose 
stone  to  form  blind  drains,  from  which  the  collected 
water  must  be  led  to  some  lower  point  for  escape. 

541.  Foundation  walls  should  be  laid  in  mortar  of 
cement  and  sand  and  be  smooth   on  both   faces.     If 
not  drained  on   the  exterior,  the  outer  space  to  be 
filled  with  gravel,  which  will  conduct  rain-water  flow- 
ing down  without  the  wall  into  the  soil,  if  porous. 
But  if  the  soil  be  clayey  or  springy,  the  bottom  of  the 
wall  must  be  drained,  and  it  is  better  to  have  drains 
under  the  walls  in  all  cases. 

542.  Cellar    walls   that   are   laid   dry,    or   slightly 
pointed  on  the  inside,  have  their  stone-work  dislocated 
by  freezing,  with  the  risk  of  water  entering. 

Where  sandstone,  soft  limestone,  or  brick  is  used, 
the  outside  of  the  wall  should  also  be  coated  with 
melted  coal-tar,  and  a  damp-proof  course  be  carefully 


80  NOTES   ON    MILITARY    HYGIENE. 

introduced  to  check  moisture  rising  by  capillary  at- 
traction. 

543.  House  walls  should  be  furred  as  well  as  plas- 
tered.    Otherwise  the  house  will  be  damp  and  cold. 

544.  Besides   healthful   sites,  the   essential  condi- 
tions of  barracks   are  dryness,  warmth,  light,  floor- 
space  and  air-supply. 

545.  There  is  no  good  reason  for  preserving  the 
traditional  hollow  square  in  the  arrangement  of  the 
individual  buildings  at  a  post,  and  while  they  must 
be  arranged  with  due  regard  to  military  convenience 
for  assembly  and  drill,  they  should  be  placed   with 
relation  to  sunlight  and  the  prevailing  winds  so  as  to 
get  the  utmost  advantage  of  locality  and  climate. 

546.  Officers'  quarters  should  face  nearly  south,  or 
should  have  as  much  of  such  an  exposure  as  possible; 
and  when  two  are  under  one  roof   they  should   not 
stand  east  and  west,  if  it  can  be  avoided. 

547.  A  southern  exposure  is  warmer  in  winter,  and 
on  account  of  the  prevailing  winds,  at  least  at  our  in- 

iterior  posts,  is  generally  cooler  in  summer. 

548.  Parkes  advises  the  long  axis  of  barracks  to  be 
north  and  south,  that  the  sun  may  fall  on  both  sides 
of  the  building. 

But  for  our  simple  buildings,  facing  south,  the  sun- 
light sufficiently  floods  the  rooms  and  they  are  swept 
by  the  southerly  winds. 

Floor-space  and   Ventilation. 

549.  In  the  squad-room  every  man  should  have  600 
cubic  feet  air-space  and  50  square  feet  floor-space,  and 
south  of  36°  K  these  should    be  800  and  70.      (The 
official  recommendations  for  English  troops  in  India, 


HAlJITATlOJfS.  81 

range  from  1,500  to  3,000  cubic  feet,  and  from  ;.~>  t<> 
150  square  feet.) 

550.  Squad-room  should  not   be  less  than  12  nor 
more  than  14  feet  high,  nor  more  than  24  feet  wide. 
Excessive  width  is  a  common  error. 
.V>L   When  it  is  necessary  to  quarter  troops  in  ordi- 
nary dwellings,  the  rule  is: 
For  rooms  15  feet  wide,  one  man  to  every    yard   in 

length; 
"        "      15-25  feet  wide,  two  men  to  every  yard  in 

length; 
"         "     more  than  25  feet  wide,  three  men  to  every 

yard  in  length, 

552.  Ventilation  is  important,  because  after  the 
air  has  been  destroyed  by  respiration  it  is  immaterial 
whether  the  original  supply  was  GOO  or  6,000  feet, 

-V>:;.  Air  is  a  mixture  of  21  parts  of  oxygen  (0)  and 
79  of  nitrogen  (N),  practically  1 : 4,  and  it  also  carries 
watery  vapor  from  ^^  to  ^  of  its  bulk  and  con- 
tains normally  4  parts  of  carbon  dioxide  (C02)  in 
10,000. 

554.  The  air  that  enters  the  lungs  meets  in  their  very 
delicate  membrane  blood  returning  from  all  parts  of 
the  body,  into  which  blood  it  discharges  0  and  from 
which  it  receives  C02,  watery  vapor,  and  organic  mat- 
ters, all  forms  of  body  waste. 

555.  Now  C02  by  itself  is  not  particularly  harmful, 
and  where  that  gas  alone  is  added,  the  air  may  be 
breathed  Avith  impunity  when  it  contains  many  times 
the   normal    amount,  as   at   certain    baths    where    it 
readies  150  parts  in  10,000. 

55G.  In  a  dormitory  C02  is  dreaded  because  it  rep- 
resents a  certain  amount  of  respired  oxygen,  so  much 
taken  from  the  room;  and  just  as  this  C02  is  inhaled, 


82  NOTES    ON    MILITARY    HYGIENE. 

by  so  much  does  it  interfere  with  the  release  of  fresh 
C02  from  the  blood. 

557.  But  the  effects  of  breathing  expired  air  are 
much  more  injurious  than  would  be  the  inhaling  of 
an  equal  amount  of  C02.     This   is  clue    to   minute 
quantities  of  decomposing  organic  matter  being  taken 
into  the  lungs  anew. 

558.  The  exact  amount  of  organic  matter  so  given 
off  has  never  been  determined,  but  it  is  nitrogenous, 
is  highly  oxidizable,  is  very  foetid  and  is  probably  in- 
timately connected  with  the  expired  watery  vapor. 

559.  That  C02  is  not  the  destructive  agent  has  been 
shown  by  confining  a  mouse  in  a  jar  in  which  sponges 
with  baryta  water  removed  C02  as  it  developed.     The 
exhaled  aqueous  vapor  was  absorbed  by  calcium  chlo- 
ride.    Fresh  air  was  pumped  in  as  required,  but  the 
mouse  died  at  the  end  of  45  minutes.     Potassium 
permanganate  demonstrated  the  organic  matter. 

560.  The  mouse  died,  not  from  the  presence  of  Co2, 
for  that  was  removed;  not  from  the  want  of  0,  for 
that  was  supplied;  but  by  the  direct  poison  of  the 
expired  organic  matter  from  the  lungs  and  probably 
from  the  skin. 

561.  A  man  who  loses  his  life  by  plunging  into  a 
reservoir  of  C02,  as  a  deep  well  or  cistern,  is  simply 
drowned  as  he  would  be  were  fresh  air  excluded  from 
his  lungs  by  water. 

It   is,  however,  possible   that   in  such  cases   other 
actively  poisonous  gases  may  sometimes  be  present. 

562.  Conspicuous  illustrations  of  poisoning  by  foul 
air,  not  C02,  are  the  Str.  Londonderry,  where  72  out 
of  200  died  while  confined  in  a  small  cabin;  the  Black 
Hole  of  Calcutta,  where  146  were  confined  overnight 
in  a  space  of  18  feet  square,  with  two  small  windows, 


HABITATIONS.  88 

*• 

and    only   :l-\  were  alive  the  next  morning,  in- 
whom  died  afterward  of  typhus  fever;  after  Atisler- 
litz,  of  300  Austrian   prisoners,  confiiied    in    a    very 
small  place,  260  died  "in  a  short  time." 

r>(>:;.  Horses  transported  in  unventilated  cars  have 
been  killed  under  precisely  similar  conditions. 

564.  Brown-Sequard,  condensing  watery  vapor  from 
human  lungs,  produced  a  liquid  that  injected   under 
the  skin  of  a  rabbit  was  speedily  mortal.     There  is  a 
volatile  toxic  principle  in  expin  d  air. 

565.  The  fever  of  the  slave-ships,  the  camp  iVver 
and  jail  fever  of  former  times  but  always  ready  to  re- 
appear, the   immigrant  fever  of  the   Irish  packets  of 
past  years,  and  the  typhus  of  to-day  are  all  a  similar 
outcome  of  the  poisoning  of  man  by  man. 

566.  We  do  not  now  often  meet  these  immediately 
serious  results  of  want  of  ventilation,  hut  what  ii 
erally  found  is  deficiency  of  nutrition  leading  first  to 
anremia  or  deficient  blood,  then  to  loss  of  vigor,  and 
then  to  general  diminution  of  resistance  to  disc; 

r>(i<.  Should  there  be  no  accidental  source  of  pure 
C0a,  and  ordinarily  there  is  not  in  barracks,  all  that 
is  in  excess  of  4  to  10,000  is  the  CO.,  of  respiration, 
or,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  "  carbonic  impurity." 

568.  Carbonic  impurity,  then,  in  itself  is  not  dan- 
gerous, but  it  is  indicative  of  danger. 

569.  Natural  air  contains  4  parts  C02  to  10,000,  and 
up  to  6  or  7  parts  hygienists  speak  of  it  as  "allowable 
impurity."     Beyond  that  it  is  a  sign  that  there  is  too 
great  contamination  by  the  accompanying  impurities. 

This  condition  is  what  physicians  know  as  "crowd- 
poisoning." 

570.  The  most  practical  test  for  this  depressing 
aerial  poison  is  the  sense   of  smell.     A  "close "or 


84  NOTES    ON    MILITARY    HYGIENE. 

"  musty,"  to  say  nothing  of  an  offensive  smell  means 
harm. 

571.  Crowd-poisoning  may  also  occur  in  the  open 
air,  as  when  large  bodies  of  infantry  march  in  close 
order  in  warm  weather  in  a  stagnant  atmosphere. 

572.  Civilized  men  in  their   ordinary  habitations 
may  suffer  from:  (1)  The  hurtful  emanations  from 
healthful  human  bodies;  (2)  gases,  more  or  less  poison- 
ous, the  products  of  combustion;  (3)  the  compounds, 
sometimes  odorless  and  sometimes  giving  smell,  col- 
lectively known  as  sewer-air;  and  (4)  those  particulate 
emanations,    invisible    and    unrecognized   except   by 
their  results,  that  cause  the  contagious  diseases. 

573.  In  barracks,  the  first,  the  nitrogenous  out-put 
of  the  body,  is  the  ever-present  condition;  sewer-gases, 
or  other  direct  poisons,  except  carbon  monoxide  (CO), 
are  rare;  and  contagious  diseases,  except  accidentally 
in  the  very  first  stage,  are  seldom  found. 

574.  But  in  hospitals  the  emanations  from  diseased 
bodies  are  constantly  present  and  require  to  be  neu- 
tralized or  removed. 

575.  A  man  living  by  himself  out-of-doors  would 
have  so  much  fresh  air  as  not  to  suffer  from  the  con- 
ditions just  noted;  and  it  is  the  object  of  improved 
civilization  to  reduce  these  conditions  within  doors  to 
the  minimum. 

576.  Ventilation  is  securing  a  change  of  air,  and 
the   more   complete   with   the   least   discomfort  the 
better. 

577.  "Perfect  ventilation  can  be  said  to  have  been 
secured  in  an  inhabited  room  only  when  any  and 
every  person  in  the  room  takes  into  his  lungs  at  each 
respiration  air  of  the  same  composition  as  that  sur- 
rounding the  building,  and  no  part  of  which  has  re- 


HABITATIONS.  .      •  85 

cently  been  in  his  own  lungs  or  those  of  his  neighbors, 
or  which  consists  of  products  of  combustion  gener- 
ated in  the  building,  while  at  the  same  time  he  feels 
no  currents  or  draughts  of  air,  and  is  perfectly  com- 
fortable as  regards  temperature,  being  neither  too  hot 
nor  too  cold."  (Billings.) 

578.  Perfect  ventilation  requires  a  room  of  special 
^construction,  and  thirty  times  as  much  fuel  as  to  heat 

a  room  of  the  same  size  in  the  ordinary  way. 

579.  Good  ventilation  means  keeping  the  vitiated 
y  air  diluted  to  the  standard  of  allowable  carbonic  im- 
purity.    (6-7  in  10,000.) 

,  580.  All  ventilation  depends  upon  (1),  the  diffusion 
of  gases,  and  (2),  the  entrance  and  exit  of  air  i*rom 
and  into  the  outer  atmosphere. 

581.  The  diffusion  of  gases  is  the  property  by  which 
every  gas  will  freely  and  rapidly  expand    into  the 
space  occupied  by  another  gas,  much  as  though  that 
space  were  a  vacuum,  and  the  mixture  will  not  sep- 
arate. 

582.  The  carbon  dioxide  does  not  sink  to  the  bot- 
tom of  the  room,  although  probably  in  an  undisturbed 
atmosphere  organic  particles  thus  gravitate. 

583.  A  man  in  repose  breathes  18  times  a  minute, 
about  two-thirds  of  a  pint  at  a  time. 

He  exhales  12-16  feet  C0a  in  24  hours,  or  .6  cubic 
foot  per  hour. 

He  also  discharges  from  his  lungs  and  skin  25-40 
oz.  water,  requiring  211  cubic  feet  per  hour  to  main- 
tain as  vapor. 

And  he  disengages  from  his  lungs  and  skin  about 
300  grains  per  day  decomposable  organic  matter,  of 
which  from  30  to  40  grains  is  given  off  from  the  lungs. 

584.  The  amount  of  this  nitrogenous  organic  matter 


86  *      NOTES   ON   MILITARY   HYGIENE. 

is  determined  with  groat  difficulty;  but  one  fair  test  is 
the  sense  of  smell,  and  a  better  one,  although  difficult, 
the  amount  of  C02,  which  is  a  measure  of  comparison. 

585.  Combustion  may  add  to   the  impurities,  one 
pound  of  anthracite  coal  consuming  32  cubic  feet  0; 
one  foot  coal  gas  gives  out  2  feet  C02. 

586.  Air   once  breathed   loses   5  per  cent.  0  and 
gains  a  little  more  than  5  per  cent.  C02. 

587.  To   keep   the   C02  down   to  the  standard  of 
allowable  impurity  requires  3,000  cubic  feet  fresh  air 
per  man  per  hour. 

588.  This   relatively  large  amount   is   needed  be- 
cause a  man  does  not  breathe  out  of  and  into  separate 
reservoirs,  but  contaminates  the  air  about  him  which 
he  and  his  neighbors  must  continue  to  use. 

589.  The  rate  of  supply  depends  upon  the  size  of 
the  apartment,  the  occupancy  being  the  same. 

A  space  of  100  cubic  feet  must  be  renewed  30 
times  an  hour,  while  one  of  1,000  feet  would  only 
require  renewal  thrice. 

590.  These  poisonous  matters  do  not  immediately 
fly  off  uniformly  into  space;  and  diffusion,  although  a 
steady  and  reasonably  rapid  process,  does  not  directly 
overcome  the  effects   of  currents  caused  by  varying 
temperature. 

591.  When  much  difference  in  composition  exists 
between   the  upper   and   lower  strata,  the  upper  is 
usually  the  most  impure. 

592.  For  a  room  permanently  occupied,  with  ordi- 
nary ventilation,  a  capacity  of  1,000  cubic  feet  per 
head  is  the  lowest  limit,  but  for  healthy  soldiers  in 
ordinary  squad -rooms  in  temperate  climates  600  feet 
per  man   is  sufficient,   under   proper  provisions   for 
renewal. 


HABITATIONS.  8? 

593.  Cavalry  should  have  somewhat  greater  allow- 
ance than  infantry,  to   dissipate    unavoidable    stable 
odors. 

594.  Emanations  from  the  sick  in  hospitals,  having 
specific  poisons  of  their  own,  requiiv  extreme  dilution. 

595.  It  is  probable  that  the  greater  the  amount  of 
fresh  air,   especially  if  it  contains  ozone,   the   more 
rapid  is  .the  oxidation  and  simultaneous  destruction 
of  such  disease-causes. 

596.  Ozone  is  an  allotropic  condition  of  oxygen, 
probably  arranged  as  OaO. 

597.  Floor  space  should  be  GO-70  feet  per  man. 
but  the  area  will  vary  with  the  capacity. 

598.  Thus,  practically  a  room  10  feet  high  requires 
60  square  feet,  and  one  12  feet  high  50  square  feet 
per  man. 

599.  For  ventilation,  all  height  above  12  feet  may 
be  disregarded. 

600.  The  supply  of  3,000  feet  per  hour  requires  the 
600  feet  per  man  to  be  renewed  5  times  within  that 
period,  and  this,  if  the  apartment  is  small,  is  some- 
times difficult  and  at  ordinary  temperatures  uncom- 
fortable. 

601.  Thus,  through  a  space  of  500  cubic  feet  sup- 
plied by  an  inlet  of  12  square  inches  the  movement 
would  be  at  the  rate  of  10  feet  per  second,  or  nearly 
7  miles  an  hour;  through  24  square  inches  it  would 
be  5  feet  or  3.4  miles. 

Therefore  in  a  small  room  uncomfortable  draughts 
would  be  created. 

602.  Ventilation  of  larger  spaces  will  be  easier  be- 
cause the  currents  are  more  readily  broken  in  them, 
Uil  much  depends  on  the  locality  and  the  size  of  the 
inlets. 


88  KOTES   OK    MILITARY   HYGIEKE. 

G03.  All  natural  ventilation,  independently  of  the 
diffusion  of  gases,  depends  practically  upon  differ- 
ences of  temperature  whereby  the  relative  positions 
of  parts  of  the  atmosphere  are  changed. 

604.  External  ventilation  depends  on  heat,  a  con- 
spicuous illustration  being  the  trade  winds. 

G05.  Where  temperature  is  uniform  over  large 
regions,  especially  if  it  is  very  hot,  the  air  may  not 
move  much  and  the  oppressive  feeling  of  stagnation 
is  not  imaginary. 

606.  Probably  a  considerable  source  of  the  exhila- 
ration of  a  sea  voyage  depends  upon  the  boundless 
supply  of  absolutely  pure  air. 

607.  But  within  enclosed  walls  provision  must  be 
made  for  the  escape  as  well  as  the  entrance  of  air. 

608.  The  simplest  method  is  through  open  doors 
and  windows  on  opposite  sides  of  a  room,  so  that  the 
wind  may  blow  through.     This  is  perflation. 

609.  This  should  be  practised  daily  in  every  bar- 
rack, to  sweep  out  all  the  air  formerly  present. 

The  only  exception  is  when  rain  or  snow  would 
beat  in  on  the  windward  side,  but  even  then  the 
opposite  side  must  be  opened  part  of  the  day. 

610.  This  cannot  be   kept   up   in   severe  weather 
while  the  room  is  occupied,  and  in  any  weather  where 
the  external  temperature  is  much  lower  the  discom- 
fort of  draughts  will  forbid  the  partial  opening  of 
windows. 

611.  Diffusion  of  gases  establishes  uniform  foulness 
as  well  as  freshness,  but  has  little  effect  over  floating 
organic  matter. 

612.  Natural    ventilation    of    buildings     depends 
chiefly  on  aspiration.     The  outer  air  in  motion  leaves 


HABITATIONS.  89 

a  possible  vacuum  over  points  of  exit,  into  which  the 
inner  air  moves. 

(>i:>.  But  the  air  will  not  pass  out  unless  there  is 
opportunity  for  other  air  to  take  its  place. 

614.  We  must  therefore  have  a  difference  of  tem- 
perature and  opportunity  for  both  ingress  and  e 
of  air,  as  illustrated  by  a  common  stove. 

G15.  Hence  in  attempting  to  warm  a  house  l»y  a 
furnace,  the  effort  "to  keep  the  heat  in"  by  closing 
the  openings  fails,  but  to  open  a  window  for  the 
escape  of  cold  air  allows  the  warm  air  to  replace  it. 

GIG.  The  ordinary  soitrces  of  contamination  of 
contained  air,  besides  the  human  body,  are:  (1) 
Leaks  from  sewer-pipes;  (2)  up-currents  from  imper- 
fect traps  in  waste-pipes;  (3)  decomposition  of  vege- 
table matter  in  closets  and  cellars;  (4)  products  of 
combustion. 

617.  There  is  no  excuse  for  decomposing  vegetation 
within   the  building,  which  is  very  hurtful,  and  its 
prevention  is  simply  a  matter  of  police. 

(For  defective  plumbing,  see  Sewerage.) 

618.  Leaking  gas-pipes  are  occasionally  a  serious 
contamination  in  quarters. 

619.  Carbonic  oxide,  or  carbon  monoxide   (CO),  is 
one  of  the  products  of  combustion,  especially  of  coal. 

This  is  an  active  and  deadly  poison,  inodorous, 
which  escapes  freely  through  the  joints  of  stoves  and 
directly  through  red-hot  cast  iron. 

Some  coal  gives  out  sulphur  compounds  which 
betray  themselves,  but  CO  is  inodorous. 

620.  The    fresh-air    supply    of    heating    furnaces 
should   be  carefully  guarded  against  contamination 
from  drains  and  slop  deposits. 


90  NOTES   ON   MILITARY    HYGIENE. 

621.  Steam  and  hot-water  coils  do  not  pollute  the 
air. 

622.  The    introduction    and  extraction  of  air   "by 
machinery  is  necessary  in  large  and  complex  buildings, 
but  not  in  ordinary  barracks  where  the  change  de- 
pends upon  the  movement  of  the  external  atmosphere 
and  upon  difference  in  temperature  within  and  with- 
out. 

623.  In  winter  when  doors  and  windows  must  be 
closed,  the  difference  of  temperature  is  a  chief  factor,, 
and  ventilating  openings  are  smaller  as  this  difference 
increases. 

624.  Generally  the  section-area  of  inlets  must  equal 
that  of  outlets. 

Exception:  Where  a  strong  out-going  current  over 
a  large  area,  like  a  chimney,  makes  the  indraft 
through  small  sections  much  more  rapid. 

625.  The  following  are  simple  methods  for  the  ad- 
mission of  air,  requiring  no  special  appliances: 

(1).  Where  the  sashes  do  not  fit  accurately,  wedges 
between  them  will  allow  a  considerable  current  of  air 
to  enter  the  length  of  the  crack  and  escape  by  the 
chimney  or  other  flue. 

(2).  Eaise  the  lower  and  lower  the  upper  sash;  air 
will  enter  where  the  displaced  borders  fail  to  fit  closely. 

(3).  Eaise  the  lower  sash  a  few  inches  and  fill  the 
space  beneath  with  a  light  board.  Air  enters  where 
the  sashes  no  longer  join. 

(4).  Where  the  sashes  are  double,  always  have  a 
movable  pane  in  the  outer  one. 

626.  But,  generally,  some  special   method  of  direct 
communication  with  the  outer  air  is  better. 

627.  For  ordinary  climates  fair  ventilation  can  be 
established  by  a  box  or  tube  running  across  the  room 


HABITATIONS.  91 

under  the  ceiling,  open  to  the  outer  air  at  each  end, 
with  a  perpendicular  diaphragm  in  the  middle.  The 
si  dcs  lire  perforated  and  the  air  will  cuter  from  the  half 
toward  which  the  air  is  blowing  and  will  escape  through 
the  other  half.  If  necessary,  the  amount  of  air  can 
be  controlled  by  valves  at  the  extremities. 

628.  The  English  authorities  call  for  24  square1 
inches  per  head  for  both  inlet  and  outlet.  That  is 
excessive  for  this  country  with  its  greater  range  of 
temperature. 

G'20.  All  air  shafts  should  be  smooth  in  order  to 
relieve  friction,  which  greatly  retards  air. 

630.  Air  shafts  must  be  judiciously  placed,  (1)  in 
order  to  avoid  direct  currents  between  entrances  and 
exits,  and  (2)  because  air  has  a  marked  tendency  to 
ad  1  lore  to  and  roll  along  plane  surfaces  instead  of  im. 
mediately  diffusing  itself  through  an  enclosed  space. 

631.  The   most  generally  convenient    method   for 
admitting  air  to  ordinary  barracks  is  to  carry  shafts 
from  the  open  air  directly  under  the  heating  apparatus. 

Their  outer  ends  should  be  turned  down  to  prevent 
wind  blowing  directly  through  with  violence. 

There  should  be  a  jacket  about  the  stove,  that  the 
air  may  be  warmed  before  it  spreads  over  the  room  ; 
or,  in  the  same  way  it  must  be  conducted  upward  at 
the  base  of  steam  coils,  that  it  may  not  spead  over  the 
floor  while  yet  cool. 

632.  Exit  shafts  arc  to   be  placed  in  the    ceiling 
near  the  eaves  on  both  sides  of  the  room,  tall  enough 
to  use  the  aspirating  force  of  the  wind  from  either  di- 
rection. 

633.  In  very  cold  climates,  or  where  there  is  dan- 
ger that  cold  air  may  enter  these  channels  on  one  side 


92  NOTES   ON   MILITARY   HYGIENE. 

of  the  house  while  escaping  on  the  other,  valves  may 
be  arranged  to  prevent  it. 

634.  A  simple  plan  is  that  of  one  or  more  tubes  or 
shafts  through  the  ceiling,  extending  higher  than  the 
ridge  and  divided  longitudinally  into  two  or  four  parts. 

The  air  enters  one  and  escapes  through  another 
channel.  This  makes  no  provision  for  its  distribution 
within  the  room,  and  the  incoming  air  is  liable  to  es- 
cape at  once. 

635.  A  better  method    is  to  enclose  one  tube    or 
shaft  within  another  of  slightly  larger  area  and  pass 
both  from  the  ceiling  through  the  ridge,  the  inner 


tube  being  the  longer  in  both  directions  and  having 
flanges  at  its  lower  end.  The  heated  air  will  escape 
by  the  inner  tube  and  fresh  air  will  enter  by  the  outer 
channel  and  be  diverted  throughout  the  room  by  the 
lateral  projections.  (See  figure.) 

636.  Ridge    ventilation,   peculiarly   a  method    for 


, 


HABITATIONS.  93 

hospitals  but  perfectly  applicable  to  barracks,  is  in 
substance  an  opening  about  18  inches  wide,  the  length 
of  the  ridge,  covered  by  an  independent  roof  18-24 
inches  higher,  with  sides  open  in  v/hole  or  in  part,  and 
communicating  with  the  ceiling  by  a  boxed  opening 
extending  into  it. 

(>•}].  In  the  cold  season,  for  ridge  ventilation  must 
be  substituted  boxed  shafts  13-24  inches  square,  from 
the  tie-beams  to  beyond  the  ridge,  utilizing  the  stove- 
pipe to  assist  the  outward  current. 

638.  Where  there  are  both  inlet  and  outlet  tubes, 
if  the  air  is  warmed  before  entrance,  it  should  be  ad- 
mitted near  the  floor;  if  it  is  cold,  at  the  ceiling;  and 
the  exits  should  be  placed  reversely. 

(J3(J.  Small  rooms,  in  which  doors  are  frequently 
opened,  usually  require  only  places  of  exit. 

640.  Most  walls,  unless  especially  masssve  and  well 
built,  are  permeable  to  air,  and  this  is  particularly 
true  where  the  plastering  is  laid  directly  upon  the 
brick.     This  permeability  of  walls  is  one  reason  why 
(lie  apparent  want  of  ventilation  is  not  more  serious 
in  its  results.     But  it  cannot  be  depended  upon  to 
take  the  place  of  a  regular  system. 

641.  It  is  not  ventilation  when  the  in-coming  air  is 
not  fresh  or  the  out-going  air  does  not  pass  directly 
into  the  outer  atmosphere. 

To  connect  the  air  of  a  sleeping  room  with  that  of 
>n  attic,  whether  the  latter  lias  windows  or  not,  does 
not  necessarily  ventilate  either. 

642.  Fresh   air  is    not    necessarily  cold  air.     Air 
may  very  properly  be  warmed  without  injury  before 
it  is  breathed. 

643.  No  system  of  natural  ventilation  in  summer 
will  make  the  air  in  the  house  cooler  than  that  outside. 


94  KOTES   OK    MILITARY    HYGIENE. 

644.  Ventilating  shafts  should  be  small  and  numer- 
ous rather  than  large  and  few. 

645.  Ill-ventilated  rooms  are  not  immediately  fatal ; 
they  cause  languor,  headache,  loss  of  appetite,  weak- 
ened resistance  to  disease,  and  then  positive  illness. 
For  all  this,  increased  air-space,  not  medicine,  is  the 
remedy. 

646.  In  European  armies,  consumption,  which  for- 
merly ravaged  them,  has  almost  disappeared  with  the 
increase  of  air-space. 

647.  In  the  French  cavalry  stables  prior  to  1836 
the  mortality  was  180-197  per  1,000  per  annum.     In 
1862-66  it  was  27.5  per  1,000. 

In  the  war  of  1859  10,000  horses  were  kept  in  open 
barracks  with  scarcely  any  sick  and  but  one  case  of 
glanders. 

Miscellaneous. 

648.  It  is  a  mistake  to  make  barracks  unduly  large, 
either  in  the  width  of  the  dormitory  or  by  adding 
unnecessary   rooms.     The  labor  of  caring  for  them 
does  not  compensate  for  the  possible  convenience. 

649.  Floors  should  be  cleansed  with  the  least  pos- 
sible water,  preferably  by  dry  scrubbing,  to  avoid  the 
ultimate  decay  of  wood  and  especially  the   lodging 
and  perpetuation  of  organic  matter  in  the  cracks  and 
fibres. 

650.  Wainscoted  walls  become  frequent  harbors  of 
vermin. 

651.  On  ground  floors  great  care  must  be  taken  to 
prevent  slops,  dust  and   debris  generally  being  run 
under  the  floors  and  thus  creating  a  shallow  cess-pool 
there. 

652.  Plaster,  brick   and   porous    stone   ultimately 


11  .MUTATIONS.  !C) 

absorb  organic  poisons,  which  is  a  special  liability  in 
guard-houses  and  hospitals. 

Such  walls  should  be  scraped  at  least  once  a  year, 
and  be  lime-washed  twice  a  year  with  fresh  linn*. 

G53.  Steam  coils  in  dormitories  should  not  be  placed 
near  the  walls,  as  is  the  temptation  for  economy  of 
space,  but  along  the  centre  of  the  room. 

654.  Kitchen  waste  and  dish-water,  full  of  animal 
and  vegetable  fragments  prone  to  decomposition, 
should  never  be  thrown  on  the  ground  near  by,  but 
be  carefully  carried  away  and  if  possible  be  disposed 
of  by  fire.  1 


V. 
CAMPS  AND  MARCHES. 

Camps. 

655.  Camps  are  temporary,  or  are  camps  of  posi- 
tion.     The   general   principles  of  sites  are  as   true 
for  camps  or  bivouacs   as  for  permanent  posts,  and 
although  the  former  are  often  determined  by  imme- 
diate and  imperative  military  conditions^  nevertheless 
frequently   the   two   kinds   of   requirements   can   be 
combined  by  forethought. 

656.  Secure  wood,  water  and  grass  if  possible,  but 
avoid  marshy  ground  even  for  a  night. 

657.  If  possible,  when  in  the  vicinity  of  the  enemy, 
keep  a  screen  of  woods  between  him  and  the  infantry 
camp.     (Wolseley.) 

658.  In  dry  weather  when  without  tents  a  comfort- 
able shelter  is  a  circle  of  earth  18  feet  in  diameter,  3 
feet  high,  the  earth  taken  from  the  outside,  with  one 
entrance  to  leeward  and  a  small  fire  in  the  centre. 

659.  For  personal  warmth,  a  small  fire  is  the  best. 

660.  Where  trees  are  available,  a  convenient  shelter 
is  made  by  resting  a  pole  on  two  forks  4  or  5  feet 
from  the   ground,  against  which  branches,  thick  end 
up,  are  piled  at  an  angle  of  45°  on  the  windward  side. 

661.  Except  in  the  driest  regions,  men  should  not 
be  allowed  to  sleep  on  the  ground  without  protection* 
from  soil  dampness. 

662.  A  position  on  the  slope  of  a  hill  is  warmer 


CAMPS   AND    MAIiCIIES.  IK 

tlian  one  on  the  summit  or  in  the  valley.  But  con- 
venient proximity  to  water  should  never  be  sacrificed 
to  other  advantages. 

663.  Indians  and  deer  rest  on  hill-tops  in  summer 
and  in  the  brush  of  valleys  in  winter. 

664.  Never  occupy  an  old    campground,  if  it  can 
be  avoided. 

665.  The  first  duties  wlu-n  a  halt  for  the  day  is 
made  are  to  designate  a  place  to  attend  to  calls  of 
nature,  to  post  sentinels  over  the  water  supply,  and 
to  dig  latrines  with  the  first  tools. 

Tlu1  only  exception  to  digging  latrines  is  when  the 
command  is  very  small,  is  certain  to  march  the  next 
day,  and  none  will  follow. 

666.  Sinks  should  be  placed  so  as  not  to  be  in  the 
course  of  the  prevailing  winds  to  camp,  and  must  be 
so  that  they  cannot  pollute  the  water  either  directly 
or  by  soak  age. 

667.  The  most  useful  field-sink  is  a  trench  2  feet 
wide  at  the  top,  from  3  to  10  feet  de<-p,  and   from  12 
to  15  feet  long. 

Sinks  should  be  multiplied  rather  than  individual 
ones  made  too  long. 

668.  The  earth  should  be  thrown  to  the  rear  and  a 
layer  of  a  few   inches  from   it  be  covered  in  eyerjf 
morning,  or  oftener  if  necessary. 

669.  Shallow  sinks  should  be   completely  covered 
in  one  foot  from  the  surface,  deep  ones  three  or  four 
feet.     All  sinks  should  be  covered  and   marked  on 
breaking  camp. 

670.  Sinks  should  be  screened  by  bushes.     In  tem- 
porary camps   a  pole  serves  as  seat;  in   permanent, 
box  seats  open  to  the  rear  may  be  placed. 

671.  Urinals  may  be  placed  nearer  the  camp,  and 


98  NOTES    ON    MILITARY    HYGIENE. 

in  permanent  camps  it  is  important  to  have  them  of 
easy  access. 

672.  The  kitchen  should  be  promptly  established, 
and  in  the  same  relative  position  as  if  the  camp  were 
to  persist  a  month.     A  pit  should  be  dug  near  by  for 
strictly  liquid  refuse,  solid  matter  to  be  put  in  a  box 
or  barrel  for  the  police  party  to  transport  to  a  distance. 

673.  Old  camp  grounds,  liable  to  be  foci  of  disease, 
should  never  be  occupied. 

Only  the  most  vital  exigency  allows   this  general 
and  imperative  rule  to  be  disregarded. 

674.  Whenever   a   tent   is   pitched    it    should   be 
ditched,  and  as  soon  as  the  troops  are  rested,  usually 
the  second  day,  the  company  streets  and  other  spaces 
should  be  marked  out  and  protected. 

675.  The   general   plan    of   camps   is   a  matter  of 


regulation. 


Tents. 


676.  Four  styles  of  tent  are  issued : 

(1).  Conical  (modified  Sibley)  16  feet,  5  inches  in 
diameter  at  base;  wall,  3  feet;  apex,  10  feet;  floor,  212 
square  feet;  air-space,  1450  feet;  allowance,  20  in- 
fantry or  17  cavalry;  comfortable  for  camp  or  slow 
march  Avith  half  that  number. 

(2).  Common  ("I"  or  modified  "A"),  wall,  2  feet ; 
base,  8  ft.  4  in.  X6  ft.  10  in.;  ridge,  6  ft.  10  in. 
from  ground;  floor,  57  sq.  feet;  air-space,  250feet:  al- 
lowance, 4  mounted  or  6  foot  men.  Each  infantry 
man  would  have  17  inches  to  lie  in. 

(3).  Wall,  9  ft.  sq.  X3  ft.  9  in.;  to  ridge,  8  feet  6 
inches;  floor,  81  feet;  air-space,  500  feet;  covered  by 
fly,  or  false  roof. 

(4).  Shelter  tent,  as  described  later. 


CAMPS   AND   MARCHES.  99 

677.  Rain   swells   canvas    and  renders  it   imper- 
vious to  air  and  especially  to  organic  impurities,  mak- 
ing the  confined  space  dangerously  foul. 

678.  Hospital  tents  are  larger  wall  tents  (14x15 
X4i  ft.  wall,  12  ft.  to  ridge),  that  may  be  opened  at 
each  end  and  thrown  together  in  extension. 

679.  Tactical     considerations     permitting,     tents 

Should    oprll    to   the  <-;ist. 

680.  A  tent  is   not   properly   pitched   until   it   is 
ditched.  The  tent  ditch  should  be  6  inches  wide  by  4 
inches  deep  directly  at  the  base  of  the  wall,  and  thence 
follow  the  natural  slope  of  the  ground  into  the  com- 
pany ditch. 

681.  A  careful  system  of  surface  drainage  should 
be  marked  out  promptly,  for  very  little  camp  labor  is 
more  profitable. 

682.  The  ground  is  generally  too  damp  to  lie  upon 
directly,  and  all  should  sleep  upon  some  dry  material, 
preferably  a  low  platform. 

683.  Tent  walls  should  be  raised  for  several  hours 
every  fair  day;  all  the  bedding  and  the  covering  of 
the  floor  to  be  withdrawn  and  exposed  to  the  sun,  and 
every  particle  of  refuse  to  be  removed  and,  if  possible, 
burned. 

684.  If  floored,  every  board  should  be  loose  and  re- 
moved frequently,  and  the  ground  beneath  cleansed. 

In  warm  weather  the  leeward  side  may  be  raised  at 
night. 

685.  Every  tent  should  have  an  equal  area    adja- 
cent vacant,  in  addition  to  company  street,  and  be 
changed  to  a  new  site  once  a  week,  the  old  site  to  be 
scraped  and  exposed  to  the  sun. 

686.  Permanent  camps  should  be  as  open  (or  wide- 
spread) as  possible,  for  the  evils  of   overcrowding  and 


100  NOTES    ON   MILITARY    HYGIEKE. 

the  necessity  for  fresh  air,  the  want  of  ventilation, 
and  the  accumulation  of  debris  always  increase  direct- 
ly with  the  size  of  the  command. 

687.  In  camps  of  position  soldiers  are  apt  to  bur- 
row for  warmth.     As  a  rule  this  is  hurtful,  but  occa- 
sionally it  may  be  tolerated  in  very  dry  soil.    The  ques- 

'.  tion  should  be  settled  in  advance  after  examination. 

688.  The  best  shelter  where  timber  is  available  are 
the  log  cabins  advocated  by  Major  Smart,  Medical  De- 
partment, to  house  four  men. 

Dimensions:  Inside,  13x7  ft.;  to  eaves,  6  feet; 
to  ridge,  10  feet;  door  in  the  middle  of  one  long  side, 
chimney  opposite,  outside  of  wall.  On  each  side  of 
door-way  a  double  bunk. 

This  should  be  roofed  with  canvas  14x12  feet  with 
a  larger  fly,  both  readily  detachable  for  transportation. 

This  hut  is  large  enough,  for  greater  size  means 
more  inmates  and  relative  crowding. 

689.  In   the   absence   of   timber,    adobe    walls,   or 
wattles  plastered  with  clay  are  available. 

690.  Minimum  space   between    huts   in   the   same 
row  should  equal  the  height  of  the  walls,  and  the  pas- 
sage in  rear  should  equal  the  height  of  the  ridge. 

But  should  this  encroach  too  much  upon  company 
streets,  which  should  be  ample,  camp  must  be  formed 
in  column  of  divisions. 

091.  The  intervening  spaces  are  always  to  be  care- 
fully policed,  for  pollution  there  will  ultimately  defile 
the  air  drawn  into  huts. 

692.  The  whole  camp-ground  should  be  systemati- 
cally freed  from  moisture  by  ditching,  otherwise  the 
ground-air  will  be  poisoned. 

693.  Hut  sites  and  streets  are  to  be  well  pounded, 
and  dry  streets  for  company  formations  are  important. 


0ABP8     AND     M\l!rill>.  101 

G94.  Iii  fixed  camfs  constant  occupation  and  amuse- 
ment arc  indispensable  for  health  and  efficiency. 

Marches. 

GO.").  The  direct  step  of  30  inches  at  90  per  minute 
for  common  and  l^O  for  quick  or  march  ing  time  gives, 
without  halts,  2i  and  :i?  miles  per  hour.  In  practice 
it  is  a  little  more  than  '1  and  about  3  miles  respectively. 

G9G.  Double  time  gives  35  inches  at  180  steps  per 
minute.  This  is  not  a  marching  step  and  is  too  ex- 
hausting for  more  than  rushes  and  street  fighting. 

GOT.  Double  time  is  simply  a  gymnastic,  exercise 
which  should  commence  with  very  short  intervals  and 
after  prolonged  pradicc  should  never  exceed  \!0 
minutes  as  a  maximum  for  picked  tn» 

It  yields  175  yards  a  minute  or  nearly  G  miles  an 
hour. 

G98.  The  German  step  of  32  inches  at  114  in  com- 
mon (3.5  miles  per  hour)  and  120  for  attack  seems  too 
long  a  step  to  be  per-ist.-d  in. 

G99.  The  first  stage  in  a  long  march  should  always 
be  short,  and  with  troops  unseasoned  in  marching  it 
should  be  very  short,  gradually  increasing  until  the 
maximum  is  reached  in  a  fortnight. 

But  troops  accustomed  to  marching  drills  can  attain 
this  maximum  sooner. 

700.  Every  8  or  10  days,  besides  Sundays,   there 
should  be  a  halt  for  rest  and  repairs. 

701.  The  ease  with  which  troops  march  is  inversely 
to  the  size  of  the  command.     Over  good  roads  14 
miles  in  10  hours  is  good  marching  for  a  large  army, 
but  a  regiment  easily  makes  the  same  distance  in  4 
hours. 


102      j  KOTES    ON   MILITARY    HYGIENE. 

702.  Infantry    should    not    march   with    mounted 
troops  if  it  can  be  avoided. 

Infantry  should  march  with  as  wide  a  front  and  in 
as  open  order  as  possible  to  avoid  crowd-poisoning. 
(See  569,  571.) 

703.  If  possible,  move  troops  in  columns  parallel  to 
the  roads  and  reserve  these  for  trains,  for  the  great 
comfort  of  having  the  wagons  well  up  when  camp  is 
made  is  full    recompense  for  the  somewhat  greater 
fatigue  of  the  route. 

704.  Frequent  halts  are  desirable:    The  first  of  15 
minutes  at  the  end  of  2  miles  or  less,  and  afterward 
10  minutes  per  hour. 

At  the  first  halt  men  should  be  encouraged  to  re- 
lieve themselves  and  to  adjust  loads. 

705.  At  every   halt   men   should  spread"  out  and 
rest,  but  should  not  be  allowed  to  straggle. 

To  lie  down  flat,  on  face  or  back,  is  the  most  rest- 
ful, always  provided  they  are  protected  from  wet  soil. 

Men  should  not  be  fretted  by  being  held  in  ranks 
at  a  halt  whose  length  is  uncertain. 

706.  The  French  save  time  and  avoid  the  mud  by 
squads  of  20  or  30  forming  a   circle,  and  each  man 
sitting  on  the  knee  of  the  man  behind  him. 

707.  No  particular   command  should  resume   the 
march  until  its  rear  is  well  closed  up  and  rested. 

708.  Except    with  very   small  commands,  leading 
files  should  not  be  allowed  to  hesitate  at  minor  ob- 
stacles of  mud  and  water.     Jerky  progression  is  very 
trying  to  the  muscles  and  temper  of  the  men  at  the 
rear  of  the  column. 

709.  Music  is  a  real  aid  in  marching;  the  fife  and 
drum   are   exhilarant,  and   a  full   band    stimulates. 
The  tap  of  the  drum  assists  a  common  step. 


( "AMI'S    ANi)    M  AliCll  103 

Marching  troops  should  always  be  encouraged  to 


710.  Raw  troops  invariably  overload  themselves  .it 
first  and  throw  away  recklessly  afterward. 

The  packs  should  be  carefully  inspected  ;m<l 
everything  not  authorized  be  rigorously  discarded, 
but  no  necessary  clothing  allowed  to  be  thrown  away 
afterward. 

711.  New  men  chafe  in  the  groins  and  buttocks  and 
siiiler    from    sore    feet,  and    will   break   down    if  too 
hard  pressed. 

Such  men  should  be  sent  to  siek  call  when  the 
camp  is  readied,  for  relief  hut  not  to  be  readily  ex- 
cused. 

For  .-ore  feet,  see  paragraphs  \! -i:;-5. 

]\'L  Carefully  bathe  the  head,  feel  and  genitals 
daily  and  keep  the  hair  short. 

71-5.  Canteens  to  be  filled  with  water  or  weak  tea 
before  starting:  but  as  a  rule  no  fluid  should  be 
drunk,  except  with  meals  or  when  the  end  of  the 
march  is  at  hand.  The  rare  exception  is  when  ex- 
cessive perspiration  exhausts. 

714.  The  sensation  of  thirst  is  in  the  fauces  and  is 
relieved  by  carrying  in  the  mouth  a  small  solid  like  a 
pebble,  which  creates  moisture  by  the  flow  of  saliva. 

715.  Abstinence  from  fluid  while  marching  is  an 
easily  acquired  habit  of  great  convenience,  while  the 
man  who  begins  to  drink  water  en  route  finds  himself 
in  a  state  of  chronic  thirst. 

71(>.  Asa  rule  do  not  break  camp  before  daylight, 
and  avoid  night  marches.  The  broken  rest  out  bal- 
ances any  ordinary  advantages. 

717.  Straggling  is  a  serious  evil  indirectly  affecting 
the  health  and  the  morale,  and  directly  concerning 


104  NOTES   ON   MILITARY   HYGIENE. 

the  military  vigor  of  the  column.  All  who  claim  to 
be  sick  should  be  promptly  and  rigidly  inspected  by 
a  medical  officer,  and  those  adjudged  well  be  sent  for- 
ward while  the  ill  are  to  be  carefully  transported. 

718.  An   adequate   ambulance   train    should    con- 
stantly be  on  hand  for  the  transportation  of  the  really 
ill,  and  good  troops  will  always  repay  thoughtful  care 
by  putting  forth  their  best  effort  in  the  faith  of  pro- 
tection when  disabled. 

719.  A  probable  illustration  of  over-marching  is  the 
German   Garde-Corps,    presumably   selected   troops. 
They  left  the  Rhine  3d  August,  with  30,000  infantry; 
lost  less  than  9,000  in  action,  and  the  morning  after 
Sedan  numbered  13,000  for  duty;  and  reached  Paris 
19th  September,  with  9,000  present.     In  about  seven 
weeks,  more  than  11,000  men  were  broken  down  by 
exertion,  for  the  camps  were  so  short  and  the  opera- 
tions so  active  that  little  sickness  occurred. 

720.  As  a  rule  marching  troops  are  healthy  troops. 

Carriage  of  Weights. 

721.  Nearly  every  form  of  knapsack  is  oppressive, 
and  the  blanket-bag  is  practically  the  old  knapsack; 
but  soldiers  must  carry  certain  necessaries. 

722.  It  is  not  the  weight,  it  is  the  arrangement  that 
is  oppressive.     The  chest-pressure  and  that  under  the 
armpits  and  the  want  of  ventilation  at  the  back  are 
harmful. 

723.  Nevertheless,  with   care  stout  troops   can    be 
trained  up  to  the  use  of  even  the  worst  forms. 

724.  The  Merriam  equipment,  with  no  straps  im- 
peding respiration  or  circulation,  with  the  back  free 


CAMPS    AND    MAKriI  :  105 

from  contact  and  the  weight  chiefly  supported  on 
the  hips,  is  the  most  rational. 

725.  The  next  most  convenient  is  the  Purkci 
Clothing  Case,  slung  from  the  shoulder  across  the 
body  as  the  blanket  roll  is  worn. 


VI. 

SEWERS  AND  WASTE. 

Sewers. 

726.  Sewage  is  the  waste  of  inhabited  places,  and 
sewerage  the  system  of  water-carriage  that  removes  it. 

727.  A   sewer    is    a   conduit   for   the  removal   of 
waste,  generally  meaning  excrementitious  waste. 

728.  A  drain  is  a  channel  to  remove  water,  surface 
or  subsoil;  but  house-drains  sometimes   mean  those 
carrying  kitchen  waste  or  laundry  water  into  sewers. 

729.  The  separate  system  is  that  which  carries  only 
sewage. 

730.  The   combined    system    carries    sewage    ami 
storm -water  together. 

731.  Sewers  carrying  storm-water  should  be  oval 
in  section,  small  end  down. 

732.  Separate  sewers  should  be  circular,  just  large 
enough  to  carry  house-waste  and  small  enough  to  be 
completely  flushed. 

733.  If  the  sewer  outlet  is  liable  to  be  closed  by  the 
tide,  special  ventilation  must  be  arranged  for  it. 

Sewer-air  and  Water-closets. 

734.  Sewer-air,  which  is  a  better  term  than  sewer- 
gas,   represents   air   contaminated   with    emanations- 
from  the  solid  contents,  either  in  bulk  or  as  coating 
the  pipes. 

106 


SILVERS  AND  WASH:.  107 

735.  Emanations  from  fresh  and  healthy  faecal  mat- 
ter, however  unpleasant,  do  not  appear  to  he  mis- 
chievous. They  are  hurtful  when  hearing  specific 
germs,  or  after  putrefaction. 

73(5.  Watcr-elosets  and  sewers  are  intended  to 
carry  off  the  products  of  body  waste,  and  to  bar  the 
ingress  into  habitations  of  the  products  of  decompo- 
sition. 

i^r.  The  introduction  of  sewer-air  is  prevented  by: 
(1)  A  seal  or  trap;  (•>)  disconnection;  (:>)  ventilation. 

738.  If  the  water-closet  bowl  is  not  fouled  above 
the  seal,  and  the  seal  is  of  sufficient  depth  and  kej  t 
intact;,  the  house  is  considered  safe.  lint  ventilation 
also  should  not  he  omitted. 

T-W.  The  most  objectionable  pattern  is  the  "pan  " 
water-closet.  It  never  receives  sufficient  water  in  the 
proper  way,  and,  especially,  the  pan  and  container 
are  continually  smeared  with  excrement,  gases  from 
which  enter  the  room  whenever  the  pan  is  drawn 
back.  A  pan  closet  should  never  be  introduced. 

740.  Next  better  is  the  "valve,"  whose  pan  receives 
a  greater  volume  of  water  and   whose  receiver  is  of 
better  shape  and  smaller. 

741.  Next  better  is  the  "plunger,"  but  the  me- 
chanical contrivance  that  supports  the  water  is  liable 
to  be  smeared. 

742.  Next    are    the   "hoppers,"   long    and    short. 
These  have  no  movable  machinery  and  are  plain  bot- 
tomless bowls  set  upon  a   trap   that  opens  directly 
into  or  is  a  part  of  the  soil-pipe,  the  water  entering 
by  a  rim-flush  from  an  overhead  tank. 

743.  The  chief  objection  to  the  hoppers  is  that  the 
walls  may  be  soiled   and  the  natural   flush  will  not 
cleanse  them. 


108  NOTES   0$T   MILITARY   HYGIENE. 

744.  The  short  hopper   is   the  better  of  the  two 
within  the  house,   because   the   level  of  the  seal  is 
nearer  the  seat  and  the  trap  is  in  view. 

745.  For  out-houses  the  long  hopper  is  better,  be- 
cause of  less  exposure  of  the  trap  to  frost. 

746.  The  best  variety  of  water-closet  yet  devised  is 
the  "washout,"   of  which  there  are  several  patterns. 
This  holds  a  certain  quantity  of  water,  and  is  flushed 
by  a  strong  gush  of  water  through  the  rim  from  an 
overhead  tank. 

747.  Each  closet  should  be  supplied  with  its  own 
flushing  tank,  to  avoid  contamination  of  the  drinking 
supply;  the  discharge  from  the  pipe  should  be  by  a 
1J  in.  pipe  at  the  least,  to  give  adequate  head;   and 
the  flush  should  be  by  the  rim,  to  scour  the  bowl. 

748.  Water-closet  fixtures  should  be  freely  exposed 
for  inspection  and  never  be  boxed  in. 

749.  For  public  buildings  with  closets  in  frequent 
use,  copious  automatic  flushes  arranged  to  discharge 
at  regular  intervals  are  safer  than  those  depending 
upon  individual  care  at  the  time. 

Sewer-pipes. 

750.  Small  waste-pipes  are  the  more  efficient,  be" 
cause  the  friction  is  less,  and  the  greater  the  pressure 
the  greater  the  velocity  with  less  chance  of  obstructive 
sticking. 

751.  Waste-pipes  for  single  fixtures  need  not  exceed 
\\  in.  and  should  not  exceed  2  in.  in  diameter.     For 
soil  pipes  3  to  3J  in.  is  ample. 

752.  The  outlets  of  all  waste-pipes  should  be  full- 
bore  and  they  should  join  the  main  soil-pipes  at  an 
acute  angle. 


SEWEKS   AND   WASTE.  109 

753.  Sower-pipes  that  also  carry  storm-water  should 
be  smallest  tit  the  base;  otherwise  solid  matter  would 
lie  in  bars  when  sewage  alone  is  passing. 

754.  Sewer-pipes  should  be  water-tight  to  retain 
liquid  sewage. 

7.V).  But  pipes  intended  only  for  storm-water  are 
sometimes  laid  dry,  in  order  to  drain  the  ground. 

']')().  The  amount  of  sewage  should  be  approxi- 
mately calculated  in  advance,  and  the  conduit  built 
for  it. 


757.  Having  secured  a  closet  that  will  discharge  its 
contents  without  contaminating  itself,  the  next  point 
is  to  prevent  the  sewer-air  always  present  in  the  pipes 
from    escaping    through    the    waier-closet   into   the 
dwelling. 

758.  This  passage  of  sewer-air  is  prevented  by  a 
trap  and  a  seal. 

759.  A  trap  is  a  mechanism  containing  a  fluid  that 
seals  the  waste-pipe,  to  prevent  the  upward  passage  of 
sewer-air. 

This  fluid  is  generally  water. 

760.  The  conditions  of  its  efficacy  are  that  the  seal 
must  be  complete  and  the  trap  be  such  as  will  not 
itself  become  foul. 

761.  The  advantage  of  a  trap  is,  that  when  sealed  it 
presents  a  more  or  less  complete  obstacle  to  the  passage 
of  air. 

7  6  '2.  Its  disadvantages  are  that  it  furnishes  a  check 
to  the  flow  of  water  through  it,  an  obstacle  to  the  escape 
of  refuse,  that  it  is  liable  to  become  fouled  by  use, 
and  that  the  seal  may  be  lost  entirely. 


110  NOTES    ON    MILITARY    HYGIENE. 

763.  Traps  should  be  self-scouring  when  properly 
set,,  the  outlet  of  the  bowl  a  little  larger  than  the  in- 
let arm  of  the  trap,  and  the  inner  surface  perfectly 
smooth,  which  implies  its  construction  of  earthenware 
or  enamelled  iron. 

764.  The  trap  in  common  use  until  recently  was 
the  "D/'the  objection  to  which   is  that  it  will  ac- 
cumulate filth  behind  an  interior  recess. 

765.  The  best  traps  are  the  "P"  or  "  J  S,"  "f  S," 
and  "S." 

766.  A  running  trap  is  a  shallow  U-like  bend  in  a 
nearly  horizontal  pipe.     It  should  not  be  deep  enough 
for  refuse  to  lodge. 

767.  All  the  water  in  the  trap  should  be  changed 
with  each  flush  sent  through  it,  and  there  should  be 
a  good  supply  of  clean  water  left  in  the  trap. 

768.  This  point  of  use  is  often  overlooked  in  the 
kitchen  and  laundry  sinks,   the  bath-tubs,  and  the 
wash-basins,  so  that  the  water  remaining  in  the  trap 
is  apt  to  be  the  last  running  out  of  the  vessel. 

769.  Waste-pipes  should  join  soil-pipes,  and  soil- 
pipes  mains,  by  Y's  and  not  T's,  and  the  descent  of 
the  soil-pipe  should   be   as   direct  as   possible;   and 
when  carried  laterally  the  waste-pipe  should  be  over 
a  decided  grade  with  the  fewest  possible  turns. 

770.  A  seal  may  be  forced  by  the  sheer  momentum 
of  the  water  pouring  through  it,  it  may  evaporate,  it 
may  be  broken  by  back-pressure  or  by  siphon  age. 

771.  Serious  evaporation  is  not  likely  to  occur  in  an 
occupied  house.     The  remedy  is  to  fill  the  trap  with 
oil. 

772.  Back-pressure  is  the  consequence  of  a  heavy 
column  of  water  descending   the  main  soil-pipe  to 
near  its  end,  where  there  is  an  abrupt  bend,  or  some 


s i:\vi-: us  AND  WASTE.  Ill 

other  obstacle  to  the  escape  of  the  air  in  front  of  it. 
This  air  being  compressed  moves  in  the  direction  of 
the  least  resistance  up  the  branch  pipe  and  through 
the  seal. 

?;:>.  To  produce  back-pressure  the  descending 
column  must  have  acquired  considerable  velocity  and 
there  must  be  an  impediment  to  the  escape  of  the  air 
be  fore  it.  The  fixture  whose  trap  is  forced  will  there- 
fore be  near  the  bottom  of  the  stack. 

; ;  k  Siphona.irc  is  the  effect  of  a  heavy  column  of 
water  i'allin^  suddenly  do\vn  a  soil-pipe  and  thus  pro- 
ducing a  partial  vacuum,  by  which  the  equilibrium  of 
the  s^il  is  destroyed  and  it  is  broken  by  atmospheric 
pressure  from  within  the  closet. 

?75.  Hack-pressure  and  siphona^e  are  complc- 
mental,  and  both  cannot  occur  to  the  same  fixture. 

776.  The  loss  of  a  trap  by  the  momentum  of  water 
poured  suddenly  through  it  is  a  species  of  siphona-c. 

777.  A  vent  is  a  pipe  in  the  top  of  the  bend  con- 
necting with  either  the  soil-pipe  or  a  general   vent 
pipe,  to  admit  air  and  so  prevent  siphonage.     It  will 
also  counteract  back-pressure.     It  is  chiefly  required 
in  large  houses  or  those  with  complicated  systems  of 
plumbing. 

778.  The  objections  to  vents  are  their  liability  to 
become  clogged  by  soapsuds,   etc.,  splashing  against 
the  opening  in  the  trap,  and  their  tendency  to  evapo- 
rate the  seal. 

Other  objections,  apparently  not  very  well  founded, 
are  made  to  vents  by  very  late  writers. 

779.  The  vent  should  be  the  full  size  of  the  trap, 
at  least  up  to  two  inches. 

780.  A  trap  vent  that  preserves  the  equilibrium  by 
introducing  fresh  air  from  the  interior  of  the  dwell- 


112  NOTES   ON    MILITARY    HYGIENE. 

ing,  and  uses  mercury  to  prevent  the  backward  flow, 
lias  lately  been  introduced,  and  appears  to  be  satis- 
factory. 

781.  Venting  waste-pipes  and  ventilating  soil-pipes 
are  distinct. 

782.  There  are  other  difficulties  to  be  met  with  in 
plumbing,  and  it  is  not  sufficient  for  a  quartermaster 
to  assume  that  because  a  contract  has  been  made  to 
introduce  fixtures  that  that  is  all  that  is  necessary. 
Nor  for  a  commanding  officer  to  suppose  that,  when 
plumbing  is  complained  of,  a  broken  pipe  or  a  leak- 
ing joint  is  the  only  imperfection. 

Disconnection. 

783.  A  sewer  is  "disconnected"  when  there  is  a 
large  vent,  either  with  or  without  a  running   trap, 
outside  of   the  house,  allowing  the   free   ingress   of 
fresh  air  or  the  exit  of  foul  air  as  the  pressure  may 
determine. 

784.  The   "  disconnection"  is  conventional  rather 
than  actual,  and  it  is  difficult  to  carry  out  in  snowy 
or  very  cold  climates. 

785.  The  running  trap  may  be  dispensed  with  when 
the  sewer  into  which  the  soil-pipe  discharges  is  fairly 
kept,  or  if  it  is  liable  to  be  frozen,  or  if  the  grade  is 
not  good.     It  is  chiefly  required  in  houses  not  con- 
nected with  a  good  sewer  system. 

786.  When  this  trap  is  used,  the  vent  must  be  be- 
tween it  and  the  house. 

Ventilation  of  Sewers. 

787.  The  third  and  very  important  method  of  pre- 
venting house  infection  from  sewers  is  by  ventilation. 


SEWEfcS    AND    WASTi:.  113 

788.  Ventilation    means    the    free   passage    of    air 
through  the  soil-pipe,  thus  relieving  the  seal  of  undue 
pressure. 

789.  This  is  accomplished  by  extending  the  soil- 
pipe  full  calibre  above  the  highest  closet  and  through 
the  roof  into  the  open  air,  with  the  end  free. 

790.  The  soil-pipe  thus   extends  from   the  sewer 
beyond  the  roof  with  no  obstacle  from  end  to  end  ex- 
cept, possibly,  the  running  trap.      (Par.  ifiG.) 

791.  But  as  ventilation   requires  an    inlet   as   well 
as  an  outlet,  there  should  be  a  vent  of  full  size,  con- 
nected with  it  by  a  branch  pipe  outside  the  house. 

;!»•?.  Generally  speaking  sewer  air  will  not  escape 
by  the  vent,  but  will  rise  in  the  heated  soil-pipe 
within  the  house;  nevertheless,  windows  or  air-ducts 
into  the  house  should  not  be  near  the  vent. 

The  Soil-rie. 


793.  The  soil-pipe  receives  the  discharges  from  all 
the  water-closets  and  other  fixtures  within  the  house, 
and  conducts  them  to  the  sewer.     (Outside  of  the 
house  it  is  sometimes  called  the  branch  sewer-pipe.) 

794.  It  should  be  of  iron  within  the  house  and  of 
earthenware  (tile)  outside  of  it. 

795.  It   should   have   a   calibre   not  to   exceed   4 
inches  for  the  largest  public  buildings,  while  from  3 
to  3^  inches  is  ample  for  ordinary  private  houses. 

796.  It  must  extend  full  bore  above  the  roof  and 
be  somewhat  larger  at  that  exit,  on  account  of  accu- 
mulating frost. 

797.  The  part  above  the  upper  closet  must  be  of 
the  same  material  and  construction,  to  avoid  leaks. 

798.  The  whole   pipe   should  be    tested   by  water 
pressure  for  leaks,  when  set  up. 


114  NOTES   ON   MILITARY    HYGIENE. 

799.  It  should  have  as  few  changes  of  direction  and 
those  over  as   large  curves  as  possible,  and  should 
never  be  carried  horizontally,  nor  under  buildings  if 
it  can  be  avoided. 

800.  Where  the  soil-pipe  passes  out  of  the  house  it 
should  be  protected  by  an  arch  in  the  wall. 

801.  It  should  have  full  bore  connection  with  the 
open  air  outside  of  the  house  wall.     (Par.  791.) 

802.  The  water-closet  should  join  it  at  an  acute 
angle  and  by  as  short  a  pipe  as  possible. 

803.  The  upper  extremity  of  the  soil-pipe  should 
not  be  curved  nor  be  covered  by  a  cowl. 

It  should  terminate  below  the  level  of  the  chimney 
top  and  not  be  near  a  window  into  which  the  gases 
from  it  may  drift. 

804.  Neither  the  soil-pipe  nor  the  vent-pipe  should 
be  allowed  to  terminate  within  a  chimney,  as  js  some- 
times done ;  because  the  fires  are  not  perpetual  and 
down  drafts  frequently  occur.     Such  pipes  also  are 
liable  to  be  choked  with  soot. 

805.  Suspected  leaks  are  searched  for  by  pepper- 
mint or  smoke. 

806.  In  large  houses  the  vent-pipes  are  sometimes 
run  together  upward  in  a  single  pipe.     In  smaller 
houses  they  may  enter  the  soil-pipe  above  the  highest 
fixture. 

807.  Bain  leaders  sometimes  conduct  storm-water 
from  the  roofs  into  the  sewers.     They  will  ventilate 
upward  as  well  as  carry  water  down,  and  therefore 
those  near  windows  should  not  be  thus  used. 

808.  Under    no    circumstances    should    they   dis- 
charge on  the  sewer  side  of  the  trap  or  of  the  vent, 
and  there  always  should  be  a  vent. 

809.  It  occasionally  happens  that,  impressed  with 


SHWKUS    AND    WA>Ti:.  1  L5 

the  desirability  of  removing-  sewage  from  habitations, 
post  iiutliorities  have  used  wooden  drains  through 
which  to  discharge  such  excreta. 

It  is  only  a  short  time  before  such  conduits  become 
dogged  and  saturated  with  their  contents,  and  arc 
thus  transformed  into  long  permanent  cess-pools. 

Privies,  etc. 

810.  But  water  carriage  of  excreta  is  the  exception 
in  the  army;  nevertheless  0XCT6ta   and  garbage 
erally  must  be  disposed  of,  and  that  promptly. 

811.  At  posts  after  a  well-ordeiv  1    aewgr-feyatan 
come,  in  order  of  desirability,   (1)  privies   over  the 
water,  as  may  be  arranged  on  the  sea  coast:  (2)  cess- 
pools;   (3)   privies;    (4)  the  dry-earth  system;   while 
for  the  future,  and  better  than  these,  is  the  furnace. 

812.  A  cess-pool  is  a  cistern,  generally  walled  dry, 
with  a  floor  of  earth.     Into  this  the  house  wa>te  is 
conducted  by  pipes  and  from  it  the  liquid  matters 
drain  and  the  solids  are  removed  as  required. 

813.  For  its  proper  use,  the  soil  must  be  porous  and 
the  water  supply  be  beyond  contamination. 

814.  A  deep  dry-walled   privy,  covered   and    when 
full  abandoned,  is  a  variety  common  at  some  posts. 
These  should  be,  but  rarely  are,  permanently  marked 
to  warn  future  garrisons. 

815.  The  worst  privies  are  the  common  shallow  pits 
dug  for  temporary  relief,  generally  without  authority, 
near  stables,  corrals,  and  married  men's  quarters. 

816.  These  are  often    filled    to    repletion,    insuffi 
ciently  covered  and  unmarked,  honey-combing  an  old 
post. 

817.  Such  pits  should  only  be  dug  by  authority,  speci- 


116  '    NOTES   OK   MILITARY    HYGIENE. 

fically  designating  place  and  depth,  filled  in  accord- 
ing to  rule,,  and  marked  in  place  and  on  the  post  map. 

818.  Such  care  is  especially   important  when   the 
water  is  drawn  from  wells  or  superficial  reservoirs. 

819.  The  dry-earth  system  depends  for  its  efficacy 
on  the  disinfecting — or  deodorizing — power  of  really 
dry  earth,  not  sand  or  coal  ashes  and  the  like,  cover- 
ing the  discharges  at  once. 

820.  This  is  extremely  difficult  to    carry  out  sys- 
tematically and  well.     Sometimes  the  discharges  are 
carried  in  movable  drawers  at  daily  intervals  to  an- 

r   other  place  of  deposit,  but  always  with  considerable 
risk  of  distributing  part  of  their  contents. 

821.  Human  excreta  should  be  carefully  disposed  of, 
because  discomfort  and  danger  follow  exposure  to  in- 
fecting matters  from   them,  such  as  are  liable  to  be 
present  in  solution  in  the  drinking  water  or  floating 
through  the  air,  dried  and  invisible. 

It  is  not  enough  that  they  are  out  of  sight.     They 
should  be  thoroughly  buried  if  not  burned: 

Kitchen  Slops. 

822.  Kitchen  and  laundry  slops  are  liable  to  be 
hurtful,  because  they  contain  in  solution  and  suspen- 
sion animal  and  vegetable  debris,  which  certainly  un- 
dergo decomposition,  and  are  liable  to  be  charged 
with  emanations  from  the  body  in  disease  as  well  as 
in  health. 

823.  The  ground    on   which  slops  are  habitually 
thrown  is  often  indescribably  foul  by  soakage,  and 
yet  few  people  suspect  such  waste  as  harmful. 

824.  All  waste  going  out  of  a  house,  not  into  sewers, 
should   be    received   in   water-tight    barrels,    which 
should  rest  on  superficial  platforms. 


SEWBRS    AND   WASTE.  117 

825.  The  ultimate  destruction  of  all  garbage  should 
be  by  fire. 

Garbage  furnaces  are  now  in  use  in  many  cities  that 
effectually  destroy  all  refuse  without  odor  and  at 
moderate  cost. 

s-.Mj.   Pending  that,  and   in    the   absence   of   - 
water,  refuse  should   be  carefully  separated  into  the 
destructible  (organ  i  •  debris),  like  slops,  old   clothes, 
|nn-  vegetables,  and    the   indestructible,  as   tin 
cans,  pottery,  etc. 

The  former  should  be  buried  in  deep  and  remote 
trenches  when  the  weather  permits,  and  the  latter  be 
cast  away  by  itself. 

s^;.  When  water  is  introduced  into  a  post  by  a  pipe 
system,  pains  must  be  taken  at  the  same  time  to  have 
it  systematically  carried  away.  Otherwise  the  sur- 
plus water  will  saturate  the  ground,  often  already  full 
of  organic  waste,  and  under  heat  disease  will  ar 

This  is  an  oversight  that  occasionally  occurs. 


VII. 

WATER. 

828.  Water  is  more  immediately  necessary  to  life 
than  food;  and  as  a  carrier  of  disease-causes  it  is  one 
of  the  general  sources  of  preventable  disease. 

829.  The  clouds  are  the  ultimate  source  of  all  wa- 
ter supply,  they  being  replenished  by  evaporation. 

Cisterns. 

830.  Bain-water,  collected   from  a   clean   surface, 
after  the  atmosphere  has  been  well  washed,   is  the 
purest  in  nature ;  but  its  storage  is  so  difficult  as  to 
degrade  cistern  water  from  the  first  rank. 

831.  In  collecting  cistern  water,  unless  the  surface 
is  very  clean  the  first  rainfall  should  run  to  waste  or 
be  very  carefully  filtered. 

832.  Cisterns  rapidly  deteriorate,  and  when  of  wood 
the  fluctuating  water-line  fosters  decay. 

833.  Underground  cisterns,  usually  of  cement-lined 
brick,  are  liable  to  leakage  into  them  through  cracks 
or  from  the  surface. 

834.  Overflow  pipes  should  not  connect  with  sewers, 
lest  foul  air  come  over  and  be  absorbed. 

835.  The  washings  of  roofs  introduce  a  rapidly- 
decomposing  sediment. 

836.  Clean  gravel  will  introduce  into  wooden  cis- 
terns the  bacteria  of  nitrification,  which  are  purify- 
ing agents. 

118 


WATER.  119 

837.  To  determine  the  quantity  of  water  that  may 
be  collected  from  a  non-absorbent  surface,  multiply 
the  area  by  the  rainfall. 

838.  To   do   this,  reduce    square   feet    to    inches 
(X  144),  and  multiply  this  by  inches  of  rain,  which 
will  equal  cubic  inches  of  rain.     Divide  this  by  1,728 
for  cubic  feet,  or  by  277.274  for  gallons. 

839.  The   area  of  roofs  is  that  of  the  horizontal 
plane  covered,  not  of  the  slopes. 

Springs  and  Wells. 

y 

840.  But  most  drinking-water  conies  directly  from 
streams  (including  ponds),  springs,  or  wells. 

841.  The  rain  which  soaks  directly  into  the  ground, 
either  at  hand  or  afar,  :md  is  held  by  an  impenetrable 
stratum,  constitutes  subsoil  water.     (Par.  489,  495.) 

842.  But  a  deep  water  supply  is  almost  everywhere 
to  be  found  below  the  subsoil  or  ground  water. 

843.  This  is  derived  from   rain-water  following  the 
lines  of  upturned  strata  directly  through  impervious 
layers,  until  it  is  held  at  a  great  depth  either  in  local 
reservoirs  or  in  immense  beds  whose  origin  may  be 
far  distant. 

844.  Wells  may  draw  their  water  from  either  source, 
and  it  is  practically  impossible  to  determine  from 
which  without  a  fair  knowledge  of  the  local  geology. 

845.  The  arbitrary  rule,  to  which  there  are  many 
exceptions,  is :  Wells  less  than  fifty  feet  deep  are  shal- 
low, from   subsoil  water;    more   than  50    feet   deep, 
from  deep  water-bearing  levels. 

84G.  London  and  Paris  both   lie  over  impervious 
basins  into  which  water  drains  from  great  distances. 
,  It  can  be  reached  bv  the  artesian  method. 


120  NOTES   ON    MILITARY    HYGIENE. 

847.  But  New  York  is  underlaid  by  rocks  lying 
nearly  perpendicular  to  the  horizon,  so  that  its  sub- 
jacent water   is   practically  surface  water   that   has 
soaked  directly  downward. 

848.  If  the  surface  is  not  polluted,  water  in  shallow 
wells  is  as  good  as  that  in  deep  wells.     But  where  the 
soil  is   contaminated    it  is  only  a  question   of  time 
when  the  well,  whatever  its  depth,  whose  water  passes 
through  it,  becomes  equally  foul  with  a  shallow  one. 

849.  Ordinary  well-water  in  an  inhabited  region  is 
doubtful,  and  houses  standing  100  feet  apart  should 
condemn  all  intervening  wells. 

850.  The  rule  is  general  that  wells  drain  inverted 
cones  whose  radius  equals  their  depth.     In  sand  the 
area  is  much  greater,  and  any  well  may  receive  a  sup- 
ply, pure  or  impure,  through  a  fault. 

851.  The  longer  the  neighborhood  has  been  inhab- 
ited, the  greater  the  risk. 

852.  Water   that  is  contaminated,  especially  with 
animal  waste,  is  not  necessarily  disagreeable;  it  is  apt 
to  be  more  sparkling  and  may  be  very  pleasant. 

853.  No  one  would  willingly  drink  sewage,  yet  sew- 
age is  not  necessarily  disease-bearing,  but  it  is  at  any 
time  liable  to  become  so  by  a  specific  taint  being  im- 
parted. 

854.  The  most  of  the  water  in  a  well  on  the  bank 
of  a  river  does  not  come  from  the  river,  but  from  the 
intercepted  subsoil  water  making  its  way  toward  the 
stream. 

855.  Wells  should  collect  water  going  towards,  not 
coming  from,  a  polluted  site;  and  no  well,  even  in 
search  of  deep  water,  should  pierce  a  polluted  basin, 
because  the  shaft  is  liable  to  conduct  water  from  the 
upper  to  the  lower  level. 


WATER.  121 

850.  Springs  whose  origin  is  remote  from  habita- 
tions, large  lakes,  and  streams  flowing  through  unin- 
habited regions  furnish  the  best  sources  of  water  sup- 
ply, except  rain-water  from  a  perfectly  clean  surface 
in  a  protected  reservoir. 

Solution  and  Suspension. 

857.  Substances  in    solution  completely  disappear 
and  cannot  be  filtered  out;  e.g.,  salt  in  water. 

858.  In   suspension   the  particles  do  not  entirely 
disappear,  and   their  presence  is  shown  by  turbidity 
or  opacity. 

859.  But  water  may  be  colored  and  yet  transpar- 
ent, or  at  least  translucent;  e.g.,  solution  of  sulphate 
of  copper  cypress  swamp  water. 

860.  Water  may  contain  mineral  matter  in  solution, 
mineral  and  organic  matters  in  suspension,  and  or- 
ganic matter  iii   solution  of  varying  qualities,  some 
harmless  and  some  accompanied  by,  if  not  distinctly 
made  up  of,  specific  disease-causes. 

861.  The  alkaline  waters  of  the  plains  contain  great 
quantities  of  soda,  potash  or  magnesia. 

They  are  more  disagreeable  in  the  rainy  season 
from  the  alkali,  left  on  the  surface  of  the  soil  by 
evaporation,  being  washed  into  the  wells. 

As  far  as  known,  they  may  only  be  purified  by  J 
distillation. 

Hard  Water. 

862.  The  hardness  of  water  is  caused  by  the  pres- 
ence of  lime,  magnesia,  iron,  baryta,  alumina,  or  cer- 
tain other  minerals. 

It  is  divided  into  temporary  and  permanent;  it 


122  KOTES   OK   MILITARY   HYGIENE. 

renders  cooking  of  certain  vegetables  very  difficult, 
and  compels  the  use  of  a  great  deal  of  extra  soap  to 
neutralize  the  hardness  before  washing  can  be  done. 

863.  Persons  accustomed  to  drinking  soft  water 
generally  have  some  intestinal  trouble  after  drinking 
hard  water,  and  the  reverse  is  true. 

8G4.  Hard  water  is  generally  bright  and  sparkling. 

865.  In   practice  hardness   is   recognized   by   the 
curdling  that  follows  when  there  is  an  attempt  to  dis- 
solve soap  in  it. 

866.  Soaps  are  alkaline  oleates  which  quickly  form 
a  lather  when  mixed  with  pure  water.     But  if  the 
substances  that  give  hardness  to  the  water  are  present, 
oleates  of  those  bases   are  formed   and  no  lather  is 
given  until  the  bases  are  thrown  down.         t 

867.  Eesting  upon  the  foregoing  is  the  soap  test  for 
hardness,  where  a  standard  solution  of  soap  is  used  to 
neutralize  these  bases,  and  the  degrees  are  established 
according  to  a  certain  scale. 

To  Remove  the  Hardness  of  Water. 

868.  The  hardness  of  water  is  divided  into  tempo- 
rary and  permanent  or  fixed,  the  sum  of  the  two  con- 
stituting the  total  hardness. 

869.  Ordinary  hard   water  is  so  from  the  salts  of 
lime  and  magnesia  in  solution  and  from  free  C02. 

870.  Much  of  the  hardness  depends  on  the  bicar- 
bonates  of  lime  and  magnesia  in  solution  and  on  the 
presence  of  C02. 

871.  Now  in  boiling  water  for  half  an  hour  the  heat 
dissipates  the  C0a  and  transforms   the  biearbonates 
into  simple  carbonates,  which  being  insoluble  are  pre- 
cipitated. 


WAT  IK.  123 

This  leaves  en-tain  soluble  lime  and  magnesia  com- 
pounds (usually  sulphates)  which  cannot  bo  ex- 
tracted. 

872.  Or,  in  a  small  way,  add  carbonate  of  soda 
(washing  soda).  The  reaction  leads  to  bicarbonate  of 
soda  and  carbonate  of  lime.  The  sod:i  bicarbonate  is 
soluble,  but  the  insoluble  lime  carbonate  is  precipi- 
tated. 

s;:>.  Or,  the  third  and  best  method,  known  as 
Clark's  process,  depends  on  the  addition  of  lime. 
This  is  applied  on  a  large  scale,  the  quantity  of  lime 
being  determined  by  the  soap  test. 

874.  The  lime  subtractsa  certain   amount  of   C0a 
from  the  soluble  bicarbonate  of  lime,  converting  it 
into  an  insoluble  carbonate  which,  with  the  carbonate1 
originally  present,  falls  to  the  bottom. 

875.  When    there  are  20-30  parts    bicarbonate  of 
lime  per  100,000,  about   9  oz.    quick-lime  is  used  to 
every  400  gals,   of   water,  or  one   gallon  clear   lime 
water  to  every  ten  gallons  of  water. 

876.  The  following  illustrates  the  comparative  cost 
of  the  materials  for  neutralizing   equal   amounts   of 
ffard  water.     To  the  lime  process,  which  is  used  on  a 
large  scale,  the  cost  of  labor  and  apparatus  must  be 
added : 

1  cwt.  lime, =  $       .50 

5  cwt.  soda, =  $     6.00 

20  cwt.  soap, =  $130.00 

Suspended  Matters  and  Their  Removal. 

877.  Water  may  contain  in  suspension  as  well  as  in 
solution  both  organic   and  mineral    matter,   and  it  is 
against  this  suspended   matter,  which  is  offensive  to 


124  NOTES   ON   MILITARY   HYGIENE. 

the  eye,  that  the  mast  of  the  processes  of  clarification 
and  filtration  are  directed. 

878.  Muddy  water  usually  contains  insoluble  par- 
ticles of   slightly   greater   specific  gravity  than   the 
water  itself,  and  when  allowed  to  rest  sedimentation 
will  free  it  from  most  of  the  foreign  matters,  and, 
speaking  generally,  the  remainder  can  usually  he  re- 
moved by  straining. 

879.  Settling  basins  on  a  large  scale  is  one  of  the 
important  adjuncts  to  reservoirs. 

880.  But  excepting  diarrhoea  from  mechanical  irri- 
tation,  mud,  although  unsightly,    rarely   causes  dis- 
ease. 

The  diarrhoea,  however,  sometimes  is  grave  and  per- 
sistent. 

881.  Settling,  by  rest,  on  a  small  scale  is  often  ef- 
ficacious for  domestic  use. 

882.  Suspended  matters  are  removed  by  precipita- 
tion and  filtration.     ' 

Precipitation. 

883.  Precipitation   is  either  sedimentation  by  rest 
(as  just  described),  or  through  clarification  which,  by 
inducing  changes  through  harmless  chemical  action, 
leads  to  it. 

884.  The  most  convenient  agent,  especially  if  the 
water  is  slightly  hard,  is  alum. 

Use  about  six  grains  of  crystallized  alum  to  the 
gallon,  or  move  about  in  the  water  a  lump  of  alum 
held  in  the  hand. 

885.  Some  years  ago,  one  wing  of  a  British  regiment 
parsing  up  the  Indus  drank  the  water  without  prep- 
aration and  suffered  severely   from   diarrhoea.      The 


WATKK.  125 

other  wing  used  alum  and  had  no  diarrhea.  The 
first  then  adopted  it  and  the  diarrhoea  ceased. 

886.  The  rationale  is  the  formation  of  calcium 
sulphate  from  calcium  carbonate  which,  together  with 
the  bulky  aluminum  hydrate,  entangles  the  suspended 
particles  and  sinks  with  them. 

Should  the  water  be  very  soft,  first  introduce  a 
little  calcium  chloride  and  sodium  carbonate. 

B87.  Cactus  leaves  cut  up  have  a  similar  clarifying 
effect. 

888.  Other  methods  are:  The  use  of  perchloride  of 
iron,  1  oz.  tc  250  gal.,  following  it  by  2f  oz.  carbonate 
of  soda  to  neutralize  the  acidity  and  remove  the  ex- 
cess of  iron. 

889.  Morax  and  alum.  :'>  o/.  of  each  to  a  barrel  (3H 
gal.),  have  been  recommended.      (This   appeal' 
cessive.) 

890.  Citric  acid,  1  oz.  to  16  gal.,  improves  water  by 
its  action   on   contained    minute    vegetable   growths 
(algae). 

891.  Tannin  in  small  quantities  has  the  same  effect; 
but  when  tannin  is  used  the  water  should  stand  some 
hours. 

892.  Growing  vegetation,  although  the  water  may 
be  colored  green  thereby,  is  usually  of  advantage,  but 
dead  vegetation  may  do  harm. 

Filtration. 

893.  Filtration  is  chiefly  directed  against  suspended 
matters,  but  it  may  also   influence  dissolved  organic 
matters. 

894.  Filters  have  three  modes  of  action : 

(1.)  By  mechanically  arresting  suspended  matter 


126  NOTES    ON    MILITARY    HYGIENE. 

too  large  to  pass  through  their  pores.     That  is  strain- 
ing. 

895.  (2.)  By  the   attraction   of   masses,   as    when 
water  passing  very  slowly  through  a  filter  makes  de- 
posits in  the  interstices. 

896.  (3.)  By  the  removal  of  substances  actually  dis- 
solved in  the  water. 

897.  With  sand  filters  there  is  practically  no  influ- 
ence on  dissolved  mineral  matter,  unless  it  is  possible 
for  a  chemical  change  to  occur.     E.g.  If  CO.,  is  ab- 
sorbed by  the  filter,  it  is  possible  for  lime  carbonate 
to  be  deposited  from  the  bicarbonate  in  the  water. 

898.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  gravel  and  stones 
contain  soluble  ingredients,  there  may  be  more  min- 
eral  matter  in  the  filtered   than   in    the  unfiltered 
water. 

899.  Of  organic  substances  a  very  small  but  appre- 
ciable amount  may  be  removed  by  sand  filtration. 

900.  Most  porous  substances  remove  certain  kinds 
of  organic  matter  by  adhesion. 

901.  Organic  matter  may  be  destroyed  by  oxidation 
through  the  air  that  always  exists  in  the  interstices  of 
the  filter. 

902.  But  both  of  these  actions  are  limited,  and  for 
their  continuance  the  material  must  be  frequently  re- 
newed. 

903.  But  filtration  on  a  large  or  a  small  scale  has 
for  its  main  object  the  removal  of  suspended  matter. 

904.  The  chief  materials  are  the  following: 

(1.)  Sponge,  wool,  and  similar  articles,  having  a 
temporary  value  in  straining  gross  matter  but  requir- 
ing prompt  renewal,  lest  they  communicate  more  im- 
purity than  they  remove. 

905.  (2.)  Sand,  which  has  little  or  no  effect  on  dis- 


\\  ATI.;U.  127 

solved  organic  matter,  but  removes  suspended   sub- 
stances. 

!)0(>.  (:>.)  Porous  stone,  which  acts  in  the  same  way, 
but  is  cleansed  with  difficulty.  Organic  matters  ad- 
here to  it  slightly. 

907.  (4.)  Iron  sponge,  a  compound  of  sawdust  and 
iron  oxide  heated  in  a  furnace.     It  is  a  porous  mass 
of  charcoal  and  metallic  iron  and  is  efficient  for  the 
removal  of  mineral  matter. 

908.  (5.)   Bone-black  or  animal    charcoal;    to   be 
used  when  freshly  burned.     It  absorbs  mineral  mat- 
ter for  about  a  fortnight,  but  its  chief  action  is  on 
organic  matter. 

!MK).  (6.)  Vegetable  charcoal,  to  be  similarly  used. 

910.  (7.)   Carferal,  a  proprietary  substance  recently 
put  upon  the  market. 

It  is  black  and  granular,  like  granulated  animal 
charcoal,  and  consists  of  charcoal  and  iron  in  small 
quantities,  with  a  basis  of  clay. 

Its  designation  is  derived  from  the  first  syllable-  of 
those  names  in  Latin:  CVn'bon,  /rrnun,  ^/imVmimi. 

911.  Carferal  is  efficacious  while  of  good  quality, 
but  like  all  proprietary  articles  the  uniformity  of  its 
composition  is  never  certain. 

912.  Filtering  materials  act  through  a  limited  period 
•without  renewal,  and  on  an  average  should  be  cleansed 
once  in  two  months. 

Hence  inaccessible  filters  should  be  condemned. 

913.  The  ordinary  portable   individual   filters  are 
practically  only  strainers.    They  should  be  frequently 
washed  and  brushed  with  a  stiff  brush  and  afterward 
washed  with  a  solution  of  permanganate  of  potassa. 

914.  Tank  filters  on  a  large  scale  are  of  different 
styles. 


128  NOTES   OK    MILITARY    HYGIENE. 

(1.)  Some  have  a  porous  partition  of  brick  or  stone 
between  the  entrance  and  exit  pipes, 

915.  (2).  Others  have  a  cut-off   portion  filled  with 
gravel,  charcoal,  and  sand,  through  which  the  water 
passes  into  the  permanent  reservoir. 

916.  (3).  Probably  the  best  form  is  where  the  ill 
tering  material  is  raised  a  few  inches  above  the  bot- 
tom, the  water  is  admitted  at  the  bottom  and  taken 
out  at  the  top,  and  this  lower  space  serves  as  a  set- 
tling basin. 

917.  An  excellent  field  filter  is  a  cask  charred   on 
the  inside  (that  may  occasionally  be  brushed),  pierced 
with  small   holes  through  the  bottom,  sunk  in   the 
source  of  the  water  supply. 

918.  Still  better  is  one  barrel  within  another,  the 
outer  pierced  through  the  bottom  and  the  inner  near 
the  top,  the  intervening  space  being  filled  with  sand, 
gravel  or  similar  material. 

Disease-causes  beyond  the  Control  of  Filters. 

919.  But  the  most  important  evils  associated  with 
water  are  not  tangible  in  the  ordinary  sense,  and  filters 
act  upon  them  within  very  narrow  limits,  if  at  all. 

920.  Several  grave  diseases  are  intimately  associated 
with  water  as  a  cause-bearer,  if  not  as  a  cause. 

921.  These  are  cholera,  typhoid  fever,  and  a  variety 
of  dysentery,  which  are  spread  chiefly  by  discharges 
from  infected  persons  that  gain  access,  as  a  rule,  to 
the  new  victims  by  the  mouth  with  food  and  drink. 

922.  The  most  common    mode  of  propagation,  at 
least  of  the  first  two,  is  through  the  drinking  water. 

923.  It  is  by  the  soakage  of  such  discharges  into 
wells,  or  by  their  contamination  of  the  larger  streams 
or  reservoirs,  that  such  epidemics  generally  occur. 


WATER.  129 

924.  It  has  not  been  demonstrated  that  typhoid 
fever  may  originate  from  sewage  not  specifically  poi- 
soned; but  it  is  certain  that  both  it  and  cholera  are 
caused  by  their  specific  excreta. 

925.  Now,  as  both  typhoid  fever  and  cholera  begin 
with  a  painless  diarrhoea  whose  import  the  invalid 
does  not  understand,  it  is  quite  possible  for  such  dis- 
charges to  drain  into  any  but  the  best  kept  water 
supply. 

92G.  In  this  way  epidemics  of  great  magnitude 
sometimes  begin. 

927.  A  year  or  two  ago  the  washing  of  the  dis- 
charges of  a  single  case  from  the  bank  of  a  stream 
into  the  stream  itself  that  supplied  water  to  a  settle- 
ment, was  followed  by  an  epidemic  of  1,000  cases  of 
typhoid  fever  resulting  in  many  deaths  and  great  loss 
of  time  and  labor. 

928.  Several  years  ago    two    factories  employing 
many  hands  stood  side  by  side,  but  the  men  drank 
from  two  distinct  wells.     One  of  these  wells  was  pure 
and  the  other  was  believed  to  be  infected.     Of  those 
who  drank  from  the  infected  well,  600  died  of  chol- 
era  ;  but  of  the  others,  none. 

i)'.M).  A  severe  and  fatal  variety  of  dysentery  has  re- 
peatedly been  traced  to  impure  water;  water  not  so 
far  as  known  charged  with  dysenteric  products,  but 
flooded  with  filth. 

930.  Sewage-tainted  wells  do  not  necessarily  induce 
disease,  but  the  sewage  in  them  is  at  any  time  liable 
to  become  specifically  infected  without  any  change  in 
their  physical  appearance. 

931.  Such  water  is  sometimes  more  clear  and  pal- 
atable than  that  in  good  wells,  and  it  often  is  difficult 
to  persuade  those  accustomed  to  them  of  the  truth, 


130  NOTES    OX    MILITARY    HYGIENE. 

or  to  make  them  understand  how  leakage   may  flow 
over  long  and  unsuspected  routes. 

932.  The  worst  cases  (in  fact,  not  in  appearance) 
are  the  unsuspected — for   had  they  been  suspected 
their  use  would  not  have  been  persisted  in. 

933.  A  well  nearly  free   from  iron  suddenly  began 
to  yield  chalybeate  water,  which  deposited  an  ochre- 
ous  sediment.     It  proved  that  a  quantity  of  spoiled 
beer  having  been  emptied  into  the  ground  115  feet 
from  the  well,  its  organic  matter  acted  as  a  reducing 
agent  on  ferric  oxide  in  the  soil,  which  dissolving  as  a 
protocarbonate  entered  the  water  that  supplied  the 
well. 

934.  Gas  from  a  main  1,000  feet  away  has  been  rec- 
ognized in  well-water. 

935.  The  typhoid  poison  has  been  conveyed  a  mile 
by  an  underground  flow.. 

936.  The   feature   of  limestone  regions,  that  they 
are  peculiarly  liable  to  fissures  and  subterranean  cav- 
erns through  which  water  freely  communicates  over 
long  distances,  makes  them  eminently  subject  to  the 
spread  of  cholera. 

937.  Should    a   suspected   well     materially   differ 
chemically  from  neighboring  wells,  it  is  probably  in- 
fected.    The  chemical  condition  in  this  case  being  an 
indication,  not  a  cause. 

938.  A  chain  of  wells  of  course  may  be  similarly  af- 
fected, in  which   case  special  investigation  must  be 
made. 

939.  If  a  specific  source  of  contamination  is  sus- 
pected, the  simplest  way  to  determine  whether  a  com- 
municating channel  exists  is  to  introduce  into  the 
cesspool  or  other  suspected  locality  a  quantity  of  salt 
or  brine  and   later  to  observe  what  change,  if   any, 


WATER.  131 

there  is  in  the  chlorides  in  the  well.  If  they  have 
increased,  the  inference  that  the  contents  of  the 
privy  may  enter  the  well  is  obvious. 

910.  Lithia,  which  is  not  found  in  ordinary  soils, 
is  a  more  delicate  test. 

941.  Specific  disease-causes  may  not  be  extracted 
by  filtration,  nor  respond  to  chemical  tests,  nor  be  an- 
tagonized by  chemical  agents,  at  least  so  that  the 
water  remain  potable. 

94\!.  But  there  are  chemical  indications  by  which 
st-uage  may  be  suspected. 

1)4:;.  These  are  the  presence  of  chlorides,  of  ni- 
trates, of  nitrites. 

944.  When  these  are  reported  they  are  to  be  looked 
upon  as  signs  of  sewage  or  similar  filth,  unless  there 
are  plain  indications  of  their  origin  from  perfectly  in- 
nocent SOU1V' 

9-T).  Like  C02  in  the  air,  unless  in  enormous  quan- 
tities, they  are  harmless  in  themselves,  but  they  are 
an  index  of  other  mischief. 

94G.  The  special  evils  to  be  dreaded  in  connection 
with  polluted  water  supply  are  typhoid  fever,  cholera, 
and  perhaps  dysentery. 

94  T.  " :  Unfortunately,  the  typhoid  fever  germ  is 
neither  separated  from  the  water  nor  destroyed  by  the 
oxidizing  and  nitrifying  bacteria  of  the  soil.  The 
ordinary  or  non-specific  organic  matters  of  sewage  may 
be  turned  into  harmless  nitrates  which  give  a  sparkle 
to  the  water  of  the  well,  although  it  may  contain  the 
cause  of  typhoid  fever  which  has  undergone  percola- 
tion unscathed."  (Smart.) 

948.  The  same  is  true  of  the  stream  into  which  sew- 
age is  discharged;  the  weaker  agencies  of  running 


132  NOTES   ON    MILITARY    HYGIENE. 

water  are  not  apt  to  succeed  as  purifiers  when  the 
more  powerful  natural  filtration  fails. 

949.  The  cholera-cause,  like  that  of  typhoid  fever, 
also  probably  escapes  change,  at  least  for  a  consider- 
able period,  when  only  influenced  by  natural   agen- 
cies. 

950.  It  is  therefore  much  better  to  avoid  the  origi- 
nal pollution  of  water  supply  than  to  attempt  to  re- 
move the  poison  once  introduced. 

951.  Independently  of  the  specific  disease-poisons 
intimately  associated  with  water-carriage,  there  are 
non-specific   impurities  generally  held  in  suspension 
but  sometimes  in  solution. 

952.  These  may  come  from  animal  waste  or  even 
from   animal    decomposition,  as   in   the  soakage   of 
graveyards,  and  from  vegetable  decay. 

953.  Organic  remains  in  water  are  always  impuri- 
ties, never  being  present  naturally,  as  in  some  sense 
the  minerals  that  are  in  solution  might  be  regarded. 

954.  But  in  view  of  the  inconceivable  amount  of 
organic  disintegration  going  on  through  all  time,  why 
is  not  all  water  a  mere  vehicle  to  carry  this  waste  ? 

955.  Because  the  free  oxygen  in  the  soil  and  in  the 
water  allows  unrestrained  oxidation,  and  because  cer- 
tain minute  organisms  associated  generally  with  min- 
eral matter  and  known  as  the  bacteria  of  nitrification, 
decompose  the  waste,  freeing  ammonia. 

956.  With   the  presence   of   ammonia,  nitric   acid 
and      subsequently    the     nitrates    and     nitrites    are 
formed. 

957.  The  nitrates  and  nitrites  therefore  are  indica- 
tions   that   animal  waste    has   been  present   in    the 
water. 

958.  When  waste  has  reached  that  stage  its  power 


WATER.  133 

for  evil  has  gone,  but  more  waste  may  follow  too  rap- 
idly for  the  soil  to  neutralize;  the  excess  may  be  there 
already. 

!).">!).  Concentrated  waste  in  the  shape  of  sewage 
must  overcome  the  regenerating  influences  of  a  lim- 
ited area,  and  these  indications  of  pro-existing  danger 
must  lead  to  the  suspicion  that  danger  itself  is  not 
far  off. 

9GO.  The  preceding  chiefly  concerns  wells  towards 
which  surface  slops,  broken  sewers,  or  imperfect 
vaults  may  drain. 

The  Detection  of  Organic  Wade. 

{Mil.  There  is  no  easy  test  for  organic  matter  in 
water,  l>ut  the  following  is  a  chemical  hint: 

!Mi\I.  Half  (ill  a  (juart  bottle  with  water  at  70°-80° 
V. :  shake  it  vigorously,  and  then  if  a  bad  odor  is  de- 
tected, it  is  doubtful  or  bad. 

IM;:J.  But  all  bad  waters  do  not  have  an  odor. 
Therefore  evaporate  3  or  4  oz.  to  perfect  dry  ness  in  a 
porcelain  or  platinum  capsule,  and  then  ignite  the 
dish. 

If  there  is  no  blackening  or  an  easily  dissipated 
darkening  of  the  residue,  the  water  is  probably  good. 

If  the  crust  blackens,  there  is  probably  carbon  from 
an  excess  of  vegetation. 

If  nitrous  fumes  are  evolved  and  the  carbon  spar- 
kles with  energy,  animal  matter  may  be  suspected. 

964.  The  permanganate  salts  are  rich  in  oxygen, 
that  is  easily  given  up. 

Added  by  degrees  until  the  oxygen  is  absorbed, 
permanganate  of  potash  colors  water  a  rich  pink  or 
red. 


J34  NOTES   ON   MILITARY    HYGIENE. 

065.  The  permangante  is  useful  to  cleanse  filters, 
and  to  indicate  organic  matter  but  not  the  kind  (it 
shows  beef  soup  and  street  filth  equally) ;  and  although 
5i  valuable  adjunct  it  cannot  be  depended  upon  to 
neutralize  real  disease-causes. 


Ihe  Ultimate  Disappearance  of  Sewage. 

966.  What  becomes  of  the  vast  quantity  of  sewage 
poured   into    running   streams — often   streams    that 
sooner  or  later  furnish  drinking-water  for  communi- 
ties ? 

967.  It  is  generally  said  that  streams  purify  them- 
selves. 

In  a  rapid  stream  there  is  much  oxidation  ;  the 
solid  matter  is  acted  on  by  the  bacteria  of  decom- 
position; sedimentation  takes  place  literally,  or  prac- 
tically by  the  suspended  silt  enveloping  the  particles 
of  sewage. 

Dilution  has  much  to  do  with  its  apparent  disap- 
pearance; the  volume  of  water  is  very  great  and  the 
sewage  becomes  immensely  attenuated. 

968.  But  even  specific  organic  particles  do  disap- 
pear in  some  way,  and  the  accumulation  of  deadly 
poison,  that  a  priori  would  seem  necessary,  does  not 
occur. 

969.  Nevertheless,  the   discharge   of   sewage    into 
streams  whose  banks  are  inhabited  should  be  forbid- 
den by  law,  as  it  now  is  in  England. 

970.  As  a  rule,  and  always   finally,  subsoil  water 
tends  towards  the  river-courses. 

It  either  swells  the  river  by  its  direct  volume,  which 
is  the  reason  why  a  stream  increases  as  it  descends, 


WAI  135 

independently  of  tributaries,  or  it  forms  a  subaqueous 
river.  * 

In  most  cases  both  are  true,  and  in  <>l)jecti<>nal>le 
rivers  good  water  may  generally  be  found  by  piercing 
the  gravel  bed  of  the  river  proper  and  pumping  from 
below. 

Supply  for  Troops. 

971.  On  halting  for  camp  the  water  supply  must 
be  immediately  guarded,  and  with  special  precaution 
if  it  is  small. 

!i;\!.  (ireat  care  must  be  taken  that  the  margin  is 
not  trampled  into  mud,  and  the  water  made  tin-bid. 

!>!'».  I>y  moderately  digging  out  a  small  spring  and 
sinking  a  easing  or  barrel,  the  supply  will  he  in- 
creased. 

974.  If  the   stream   is    shallow,  promptly   make    a 
small  reservoir  by  a  temporary  dam  for  drinking,  one 
below  for  the  horses,  and  our  still  lower  for  washing. 

975.  Horses  will    drink    better  and    more    rapidly 
where  the  water  is  five  or  six   inches   deep,  which 
can  easily  be  arranged. 

Where  the  supply  is  limited,  an  officer  should  be 
in  immediate  charge  of  the  whole. 

97G.  A  horse  drinks  about  1|  gal.,  requiring  three 
minutes. 

977.  At  a  permanent  camp  where  the  command  is 
large  in  proportion  to  the  water  supply,  make  one  or 
more  reservoirs  to  retain  the  water  that  flows  by  night, 
and  draw  from  them  the  cooking  and  drinking  water. 

Extend  lower  down  a  single  or  double  row  of 
sunken  half-barrels  for  horses,  all  connected  by  little 
gutters  to  avoid  waste,  and  conduct  the  surplus  into 
a  still  lower  reservoir. 


136  NOTES   OK   MILITARY   HYGIEKE. 

978.  On  the  march  a  man  requires  for  cooking  and 
drinking  6  pints  a  day,  increased  in  hot  climates  to 
8  pints,  and  an  equal  amount  for  washing  the  person. 

979.  In  stationary  camps  5  gal.  for  all  purposes. 

980.  In   barracks,  for   all   purposes   except   water- 
closets  and  bath-rooms,  10  gal.  per  head.    With  water- 
closets  and  baths,  25  gal. 

981.  Horses,  if  allowed  all  they  will  drink,  require 
6-10  gal.  per  day,  and  about  3  gal.  per  head  for  po- 
lice purposes. 

982.  The  foregoing  are  the  lowest  figures. 

983.  Hospitals  require  several  times  as   much  per 
man,  depending  on  the  character  of  the  cases. 

Ice. 

984.  Water  parts  with  some  of  its  impurities  by 
freezing,  but  not  enough  not  to  require  the  sources 
of  the  ice  supply  for  domestic  purposes  to  be  as  care- 
fully selected  and  guarded  as  those  of  water. 


VIII. 
PREVENTABLE  DISEASES. 

Malaria. 

>.  Properly  speaking,  malaria   is  not  a  discus. • 
nil  tlu>  cause  of  discuses. 

!IM».  It  may  he  assumed  to  be  an  emanation  from 
the  soil  under  the  fermentative  action  of  heat,  moist- 
ure, and  vegetable  decomposition,  intended  like  00, 
for  the  support  of  vegetation,  whose  excess  not  thus 
absorbed  is  hurtful  to  man.  (Smart.) 

987.  This  hypothesis,  which   assumes  active    \ 
table  growth  as  a  condition  for  the  absorption  of  the 
poison,  accounts  for   its   greater   virulence   at   those 
times  of  the  day  and  seasons  of  the  year  when  vege- 
table growth  is  least  active. 

988.  There  is  reason  to  suppose  that  drinking  wa- 
ter absorbs  the  malarial  poison,  which  thus  may  enter 
the  system. 

In  this  way  one  variety  of  the  so-called  mountain 
fever,  arising  under  conditions  not  otherwise  explica- 
ble, may  be  accounted  for.  (Smart.) 

989.  Whatever  the  nature  of  the  malarial  poison, 
it  appears  to  be  borne  for  limited  distances  by  the 
wind,  to  lie  near  the  ground,  to  be  stopped  by  me- 
chanical barriers,  to  be  avoided  by  residence  in  an 
upper  story,  and  to  take  effect  most  distinctly  when 
the  exposed  person  is  poorly  nourished,  ill-clad,  and 
with  an  empty  stomach. 

137 


138  NOTES   OK   MILITARY   HYGIENE. 

990.  The  disease-causes  of  malarial,  choleraic,  and 
typhoidal  (enteric)  disease  contained  in  water  cannot 
be  filtered  out  nor  antagonized   chemically  so  as  to 
leave  the  water  fit  to  drink. 

991.  But  brisk  boiling  for  fifteen  minutes  or  more 
renders  these  poisons  comparatively  harmless. 

992.  Boiled  water,  which  is  insipid,,  may  be  ren- 
dered palatable  by  aeration,  by  pouring  it  through  the 
air  or  dashing  it  in  a  vessel. 

993.  It  is  one  of  the  great  advantages  of  tea  and 
coffee  as   beverages,  that  their  preparation  involves 
the  destruction  or  weakening  of  these  causes  of  dis- 
ease through  the  boiling  of  water. 

Typhoid  Fever,  Cholera,  and  Yellow  Fever. 

994.  Typhoid  fever   (enteric  fever)   is  strictly  an 
eruptive  disease,  and  like  other  eruptive  diseases  is 
unlikely  to  attack  the  same  person  twice. 

But  it  is  very  likely  to  prevail  among  newly  raised 
troops,  and  therefore  it  requires  the  utmost  caution 
to  avoid  its  propagation,  which  chiefly  occurs  through 
the  discharges  from  the  bowels. 

995.  Cholera  has  nothing  in  common  with  typhoid 
fever  except  its  tendency  to  spread  through  the  dis- 
charges, especially  from   the  bowels.     It  may  occur 
several  times  in  the  same  person. 

996.  The  utmost  caution  then  is  necessary  in  disin- 
fecting all  discharges  and  preserving  from  contami- 
nation the  water  supply. 

997.  For  the  same  reason  old  camp  grounds,  and 
especially  those  once  infected,  are  always  condemned. 

998.  But  neither  cholera  nor  typhoid  fever  is  con- 
tagious by  mere  presence,  as  small  pox  is. 

999.  It  follows  that  it  is  important  to  disinfect  the 


PREYKNTAULi:    DISKASKS.  139 

discharges  of  both  cholera  and  typhoid  fever  before 
disposing  of  them. 

1000.  It  is  probable  that  the   cholera  poison   does 
not  flourish  in  acid  fluids  either  within  or  without 
the  body,  and  both  of  these    diseases  spread    more 
ea>ily  where  alkaline  fermentation  occurs. 

1001.  To  iiciduhite  the  excreta  is  one  of  the  best 
preventives  against  these  diseases  spreading. 

100*3.  Carbolic  acid  in  excess,  sulphate  of  iron 
(copperas),  or,  best  of  all,  mercuric  bichloride  (corro- 
sive sublimate)  are  to  be  used  for  every  diselnrj'-, 
and  these  must  be  thoroughly  disinfected  before  com- 
mittal to  the  se\\. 

\()\r,\.  Should  there  he  no  sewers,  similar  disin  fee- 
tion  must  be  practised  and  the  whole  he  buried 
beyond  any  possible  contamination  of  air  or  water. 

1004.  Everything  contaminated  by  excreta  of  any 
kind   in   these  diseases  is  to   be  similarly  and  com- 
pletely disinfected,  and  especial  pains  taken  to  pre- 
serve the  purity  of  the  water  supply. 

1005.  Should  there   be  danger  of  an  outbreak   of 
cholera,  in  the  absence  of  direct  medical  advice  it  would 
be  well    in   addition  to  boiling  the  water  to  put  the 
command   on    an  acidulated    drink,  as  (i  lemonade  " 
of  aromatic  sulphuric  acid.     This  is  believed  to  have 
prevented  the  disease  in  special  communities, 

100(>.  Yellow  fever  is  a  disease  of  navigable  regions 
in  hot  and  moist  climates  that,  as  a  rule,  does  not 
twice  attack  the  same  person. 

1007.  Usually  if  not  invariably  imported,  its  foci 
of  greatest  virulence  coincide  with  the  centres  of  ani- 
mal filth. 

1008.  A  locality  becoming  infected,  the  only  safety 
for    the    susceptible    inhabitants  is   emigration   until 
frost 


140  KOTES   ON   MILITAKY   HYGIENE. 

1009.  The  contagiousness  of  yellow  fever,  like  that 
of  typhoid  fever  and  cholera,  does  not  reside  in  the 
sick   person  as  such,  but  in  his   excreta  under  de- 
veloping conditions. 

1010.  In  a  dry  and  elevated  rural  district  yellow 
fever  will  not  spread,  either  from  a  patient  or  from 
infected  material. 

101.1.  But  the  introduction  of  such  infected  ma- 
terial (as  bedding,  baggage,  etc.)  into  susceptible 
localities  will  give  rise  to  the  disease. 

1012.  The  disease-cause  in  yellow  fever  infects  the 
air  and  not  the  water. 

1013.  The  disease-cause  travels  from  its  focus  with 
a  well-defined  and  relatively  slow  pace.     It  does  not 
develop  with  explosive  violence  simultaneously  over 
large  tracts. 

1014.  General  safeguards  are  extreme  cleanliness, 
especially  as  to  animal  filth,  and  the  exclusion  of  in- 
fected material. 

1015.  Individual  safeguards  are  temperate  habits, 
freedom  from  depressing  influences,  avoidance  of  all 
filthy  localities  and  of  the  night  air. 

1016.  Quarantine,  as  such,  is  a  useless  annoyance. 

1017.  But  all  infected  material  must  be  thoroughly 
disinfected. 

1018.  The  removal  of  troops  into  camp,  if  only  a 
few  miles  away,  before  the  outbreak  or  at  any  stage 
of  it,  will  limit  the  progress  of  yellow  fever  and  will 
not  infect  a  sanitary  neighborhood. 

Contagious  Diseases  and  Disinfectants. 

1019.  Measles  and  mumps  are  contagious  diseases 
that  almost  every  person  has  at  some  period  of  life. 
There  is  no  known  method   of  preventing  them  ex- 


PREVENTABLE    DISEASES.  141 

eept  by  avoiding  their  presence,  which  is  generally 
impossible.  As  these  are  serious  in  camp,  special 
hospital  provision  must  be  made  among  newly  rai>ed 
troops.  (See  par.  147.) 

1020.  Diphtheria,  scarlet  fever,  and  small-pox  are 
not  necessary  diseases,  but  are  contagious  and  are 
very  serious. 

]()'.M.  Small-pox  is  always  to  be  controlled  among 
the  well  by  preventive  vaccination. 

1022.  The  direct  contagion  of  scarlet  fever  is  not 
strong,  but  its  persistence  is  extreme,  even  after 
years  of  burial. 

Everything  connected  with  such  a  case,  clothing, 
toys,  and  especially  books,  should  be  burned. 

Infected  rooms  and  houses  should  be  thoroughly 
disinfected  by  scraping,  lime-washing  painting,  and 
scrubbing  with  corrosive  sublimate  1:  l,oon.  :(>  \\-,-ll  as 
by  ventilation.  Small  wooden  houses  about  a  post  it 
is  safer  to  destroy  by  fire. 

10-?:;.  Diphtheria  is  essentially  a  disease  of  foul  air 
in  its  origin.  It  is  eminently  infectious  and  clings 
persistently  to  places  when  once  established.  It 
probably  depends  on  foul  air  to  begin  with,  and  on 
want  of  ventilation  to  carry  it  on. 

Disinfection  after  diphtheria  should  be  as  thorough 
as  with  scarlet  fever. 

1024.  Consumption,  originating  in  several  ways,  is 
now  believed  to  be  a  contagious  disease.      Unques- 
tionably the  cases  are  most  frequent  in  barracks  and 
other  rooms  that  are  the  most  crowded  and  the  least 
ventilated.     The  expectoration  of  consumptives  should 
be  disinfected,  and  the  air  they  live  in  not  be  breathed 
by  others. 

1025.  "A  disinfectant  is  an  agent  capable  of  de- 


142  NOTES   ON   MILITARY   HYGIEKE. 

stroying  the  infective  power  of  infectious  material." 
(Am.  Pub.  Health  Assoc.) 

1026.  Substances  that  merely  neutralize  bad  odors 
are  not  disinfectants. 

1027.  The  best   disinfectants  are  "dry  and  moist 
heat;  sulphur  dioxide;  the  hypochlorites  of  lime  and 
of  soda  (chloride  of  lime  and  Labarraque's  solution); 
mercuric  chloride;  cupric  sulphate;   carbolic  acid." 
(Sternberg.) 

1028.  "  It  is  impracticable  to  disinfect  an  occupied 
apartment/7  but  it   should   be  carefully   closed  and 
three  pounds  of  sulphur   be  burned  in  it  for  every 
1,000  cubic  feet.     It  must  afterward  be  washed  down 
by  hand  with  a  solution  of  1  to  1,000  of  corrosive 
sublimate,  2  to  100  of  carbolic  acid,  or  1  to  100  of 
chloride   of   lime   or   sulphate   of   iron.   (Am.    Pub. 
Health  Assoc.) 

1029.  For   privy  vaults   use  one  pound    corrosive 
sublimate  dissolved  in   much   water,  to  500  pounds 
contents  of  vault. 

Iti   Conclusion. 

1030.  Finally,  the  efficient  care  of  troops  is  a  work 
full  of  prosaic  detail,  but  the  minutiae  expand  natu- 
rally, so  tliat  the  care  of  an  armed  man  and  that  of  an 
army  are  problems  of  similar  factors,  only  varying  in 
their  power,  in 'the  science  of  military  hygiene. 

1031.  Besides  their  physical  care,  the  cultivation  of 
contentment  and  judicious  appeals  to  personal  and 
professional  pride  are  important  in  forming  the  best 
soldiers. 


USEFUL  BOOKS  OF  REFERENCE. 

Manual  of  Practical   Hygiene.     E.   A.   Parkes.     American 

edition. 

Principles  of  Ventilation  and  Heating.     J.  S.  Billings. 
Hand- book  for  the  Hospital  Corps.     C.  Smart. 
The  Growth  of  the  Recruit  and   Young  Soldier.     Sir  Win. 

Aitkcn. 

Epitome  of  Tripler's  Manual.     C.  R.  Greenleaf. 
Anatomy,  Physiology  and  Hygiene.     Jerome  Walker. 
Filth  Diseases  and  thuir  Prevention.     J.   Simon.     American 

edition. 

Water  Supply.     Wm.  Ripley  Nichols. 
Sanitary  Engineering;  Sewerage.     Baldwin  Latham.     Second 

edition. 

Drainage  and  Sewerage  of  Dwellings.     W.  P.  Gerhard. 
House  Drainage  and  Sanitary  Plumbing.     W    P.  Gerhard. 
Healthy  Foundations  for  Houses.     Glenn  Brown. 
How  to  Drain  a  House      G   E   Waring,  Jr. 
Dangers  to  Health.     T.  P   Teale. 
Chemistry  of  Cookery.     Mathicu  Williams. 
Soldier  s  Pocket-book      Lord  WoJseley. 
Soldier's  Food.     J.  L,  N otter,  Jour.    Royal  United  Service 

institution,  XXX1I1.  p.  148. 

143 


'> 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Age  and  height,  influence  of 14 

of  recruits 2 

Air,  composition  of 81 

in  barracks,  contamination  of 84,  89 

Albumiuates  as  food  41 

Alcohol 66 

Antiscorbutics 65 

Atwatnr  on  food 69 

Hack-pressure 110 

Bacon 50 

Bake  meat,  to 48 

Barracks  and  quarters 79 

Beef,  corned 51 

fresh 45 

qualities  of  good 46 

salt 49 

to  determine  weight  of 46 

Blouse,  military 29 

Boil  meat,  to 47 

Bone,  structure  of 10 

Bones,  development  of  human 8 

Boots 33 

Bread 53 

hard 60 

to  bake 58 

to  make 56 

from  poor  flour 58 

Buzzacott  oven 59 

Cabins  for  fixed  camps 100 

Calorie,  definition  of 69 

145 


146  IHDEX. 

PAGE 

Camps 96 

permanent 100 

Canned  foods 63 

Cap,  military 28 

Carbo-hydrates  as  food 88 

Carbon  as  food  41 

dioxide 81 

monoxide 89 

Carbonic  acid 81 

impurity 83 

Cesspools 115 

Cheese 61 

Chest  capacity 4 

effect  of  pressure  upon 11 

Chlorides  in  water 131 

Cholera 138 

as  carried  by  water 129 

prevention  of 139 

Cisterns 118 

Clark's  process 123 

Clothing,  military 21 

color  of 22 

cotton  and  linen  for 23 

materials  for 23 

object  of 21 

special  articles  of 35 

wool  for 25 

Coats,  military 28 

Coffee 64 

Color  in  relation  to  uniform 22 

Consumption 141 

Corn  meal 60 

Cotton  clothing 23 

Development > .  7 

Diphtheria , , 141 

Diseases,  contagious 140 

preventable 137 

Disinfectants :  142 

Disinfection 139,  141 


INDEX.  147 

PAGE 

Drawers 31 

Drill,  effect  upon  recruits  of  13 

Dry-earth  system 116 

Dysentery  as  caused  by  water  129 

Excreta,  disposal  of 11.") 

Fat  as  food  39 

to  cook  in 48 

Feet,  care  of ol 

Filters KMi 

and  disease -causes 128 

Filtration 1-J5 

Floor-space 80 

Flour 54 

tests  for V» 

Food,  canned 63 

classes  and  object  of ...   :\\ 

concentrated (>:! 

in  relation  to  climate 66 

quantity  consumed 44 

required 42 

values,  tables  of 70 

Frying 48 

Furnace,  garbage 117 

Gaiters 31 

Ground-water 73 

Growth  and  development 7 

Hardness  of  water,  to  remove 122 

Hat,  military 27 

Head,  covering  for  the 27 

Heart,  growth  and  development  of 12 

Height,  influence  of 14 

of  recruits 3 

Horse-flesh 64 

Horses,  water  for 135 

Huts 100 

Hydrocarbons  as  food. .  .   .   38 

Hygiene,  military,  nature  of 1 

Ice 136 

Kitchen  slops 116 


148  IKDEX. 

PAGE 

Laundry  slops ,  116 

Leggings . . . 31 

Linen  clothing , 23 

Lungs,  growth  and  development  of 12 

Malaria 137 

Marches,  conduct  of 101 

Measle  of  meat 52 

Measles  in  camp , 19,  141 

Meat,  diseased  52 

signs  of  good 46 

to  cook 47 

to  preserve 53 

Merriam  equipment 104 

Minors  as  recruits 5 

Mumps  in  camp 140 

Music 102 

Nitrates  and  nitrites  in  water 131,  132 

Nitrogen  as  food ....  41 

Oatmeal 60 

Parker  clothing  case , 105 

Physique  of  recruits 2 

Pork,  fresh  and  salt  ...  50 

Precipitation 1 24 

Pressure  on  chest,  effect  of 11 

Privies 115 

Quarters 79 

care  of 94 

Rainfall,  to  measure 119 

Ration,  see  also  Food. 

actual  and  proposed 44 

beef 46 

bread 54 

savings  from 43 

sufficiency  of 42,  44 

Recruits,  age  of 2 

city  and  country  bred 10 

general  considerations  us  to IB 

height  and  weight  of 3 

minors  as 5 


INDKX  149 

PAGE 

Rtcruits,  particulars  as  to  examination  of 15 

physique  of 2 

Respiration,  effects  of 81,  85 

Roast  meat,  to 48 

Salts,  inorganic,  as  food 39 

vegetable,  as  food 40 

Seat-let  fever 141 

Scurvy 65 

Seals 109 

Sewage 106 

chemical  indications  of 131 

in  drinking  water 129 

in  wells,  indienl  ions  of 131 

ultimate  disappearance  of 134 

Sewerage 106 

Sewer-air 106 

Sewer-pipes 108 

Sewers 106 

disconnection  of 112 

ventilation  of 112 

Shirts 30 

Shoes. 82 

Sickness  compared  with  violence 19 

Sinks , 97 

Siphouage Ill 

Sites 76 

Slops,  kitchen  and  laundry 116 

Smallpox 141 

Soil 72 

Soil-air 72 

Soil-moisture 73 

Soil-pipes . , 113 

Soils,  character  of 75 

Soldiers,  selection  of,  see  Recruits. 

Solution .  121 

Soup,  to  make 49 

Springs  and  wells , 119 

Starches  and  sugars  as  food , . . , .     38 

Stew  meat,  to 48 

Stockings: 32 


150  INDEX. 

PAGE 

Sugars  and  starches  as  food. ..  * 38 

Suspended  matters  in  water 123 

Suspension 121 

Tape-worm 52 

Tea 64 

Tents 98 

Traps 109 

Trichina 52 

Trousers  31 

Typhoid  fever .- 1 38 

as  carried  by  water 129 

Uniform,  see  Clothing. 

Vaccination 141 

Vegetables,  'canned  62 

dried 61 

fresh 62 

Vegetation  in  relation  to  sites 77 

Ventilation , .  80,  84,  87 

methods  of 90 

necessity  for 82 

of  soil-pipes 113 

Vents Ill 

Waste,  disposal  of 117 

Waste-pipes 108 

Water 118 

allowance  of 135 

as  food 40 

boiled,  advantages  of '•.... 138 

contaminated 128 

disease-bearing 128 

hard 121 

supply  for  troops 135 

tests  for .^. 133 

Water-closets .jtjj^Q^^jSpfc^u-  •  •  10? 

Weight  of  recruits. 3 

Weights,  carriage  of ,,.  .' 104 

Wells V : 119 

tests  for  suspected. 130 

Wool  as  clothing •^^•jiT-B^^ 

Yellow  fever _>*•»• 1 39 


RETURN 


CIRCULATION  DEPARTMI 

198  Main  Stacks 


LOAN  PERIOD  1 
HOME  USE 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

ALL  BOOKS  MAY  BE  RECALLED  AFTER  7  DAYS. 

Renewls  and  Recharges  may  be  made  4  days  prior  to  the 

Books  may  be  Renewed  by  calling  642-3405. 


DUE  AS  STAMPED  BELOW 

SENT  ON  ILLJ 

Jill  0  6  2MB 

*  ^ 

U  C  BERKELi 

V 

FORM  NO.  DD6 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 
BERKELEY.CA1; 


Woodhull, 
Notes 
hygiene 


i 


UNIVERSITY  OF 


